Automatic sign language processing is gaining popularity in Natural Language Processing (NLP) research (Yin et al., 2021). In machine translation (MT) in particular, sign language translation based on glosses is a prominent approach. In this paper, we review recent works on neural gloss translation. We find that limitations of glosses in general and limitations of specific datasets are not discussed in a transparent manner and that there is no common standard for evaluation. To address these issues, we put forward concrete recommendations for future research on gloss translation. Our suggestions advocate awareness of the inherent limitations of gloss-based approaches, realistic datasets, stronger baselines and convincing evaluation.

Machine Translation (MT) system generally aims at automatic representation of source language into target language retaining the originality of context using various Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. Among various NLP methods, Statistical Machine Translation(SMT). SMT uses probabilistic and statistical techniques to analyze information and conversion. This paper canvasses about the development of bilingual SMT models for translating English to fifteen low-resource Indian Languages (ILs) and vice versa. At the outset, all 15 languages are briefed with a short description related to our experimental need. Further, a detailed analysis of Samanantar and OPUS dataset for model building, along with standard benchmark dataset (Flores-200) for fine-tuning and testing, is done as a part of our experiment. Different preprocessing approaches are proposed in this paper to handle the noise of the dataset. To create the system, MOSES open-source SMT toolkit is explored. Distance reordering is utilized with the aim to understand the rules of grammar and context-dependent adjustments through a phrase reordering categorization framework. In our experiment, the quality of the translation is evaluated using standard metrics such as BLEU, METEOR, and RIBES

机器翻译系统（MTS）是通过将文本或语音从一种语言转换为另一种语言的有效工具。在像印度这样的大型多语言环境中，对有效的翻译系统的需求变得显而易见，英语和一套印度语言（ILS）正式使用。与英语相反，由于语料库的不可用，IL仍然被视为低资源语言。为了解决不对称性质，多语言神经机器翻译（MNMT）系统会发展为在这个方向上的理想方法。在本文中，我们提出了一个MNMT系统，以解决与低资源语言翻译有关的问题。我们的模型包括两个MNMT系统，即用于英语印度（一对多），另一个用于指示英语（多一对多），其中包含15个语言对（30个翻译说明）的共享编码器码头。由于大多数IL对具有很少的平行语料库，因此不足以训练任何机器翻译模型。我们探索各种增强策略，以通过建议的模型提高整体翻译质量。最先进的变压器体系结构用于实现所提出的模型。大量数据的试验揭示了其优越性比常规模型的优势。此外，本文解决了语言关系的使用（在方言，脚本等方面），尤其是关于同一家族的高资源语言在提高低资源语言表现方面的作用。此外，实验结果还表明了ILS的倒退和域适应性的优势，以提高源和目标语言的翻译质量。使用所有这些关键方法，我们提出的模型在评估指标方面比基线模型更有效，即一组ILS的BLEU（双语评估研究）得分。

基于变压器的模型的出现，机器翻译已经快速发展。这些模型没有内置的明确的语言结构，但是它们仍然可以通过参与相关令牌隐式学习结构化的关系。我们假设通过明确赋予变形金刚具有结构性偏见，可以使这种结构学习变得更加健壮，我们研究了两种在这种偏见中构建的方法。一种方法，即TP变换器，可以增强传统的变压器体系结构，包括代表结构的附加组件。第二种方法通过将数据分割为形态令牌化来灌输数据级别的结构。我们测试了这些方法从英语翻译成土耳其语和Inuktitut的形态丰富的语言，并考虑自动指标和人类评估。我们发现，这两种方法中每种方法都允许网络实现更好的性能，但是此改进取决于数据集的大小。总而言之，结构编码方法使变压器更具样本效率，从而使它们能够从少量数据中表现得更好。

This paper presents the OPUS ecosystem with a focus on the development of open machine translation models and tools, and their integration into end-user applications, development platforms and professional workflows. We discuss our on-going mission of increasing language coverage and translation quality, and also describe on-going work on the development of modular translation models and speed-optimized compact solutions for real-time translation on regular desktops and small devices.

The field of machine translation faces an under-recognized problem because of inconsistency in the reporting of scores from its dominant metric. Although people refer to "the" BLEU score, BLEU is in fact a parameterized metric whose values can vary wildly with changes to these parameters. These parameters are often not reported or are hard to find, and consequently, BLEU scores between papers cannot be directly compared. I quantify this variation, finding differences as high as 1.8 between commonly used configurations. The main culprit is different tokenization and normalization schemes applied to the reference. Pointing to the success of the parsing community, I suggest machine translation researchers settle upon the BLEU scheme used by the annual Conference on Machine Translation (WMT), which does not allow for usersupplied reference processing, and provide a new tool, SACREBLEU, 1 to facilitate this.

在本文中，我们分享了我们努力建立能够翻译一千多种语言的实用机器翻译（MT）系统的发现。我们在三个研究领域中描述了结果：（i）通过利用半监督预训练的语言识别和开发数据驱动的过滤技术来构建1500多种语言的清洁，网挖数据集； （ii）通过利用大规模的多语言模型来开发用于服务不足的语言的实用MT模型，该模型训练了有监督的并行数据，以使用100多种高资源语言和单语言数据集，以增加1000多种语言； （iii）研究这些语言的评估指标的局限性，并对我们MT模型的输出进行定性分析，突出显示了这些类型模型的几种频繁误差模式。我们希望我们的工作为旨在为当前研究的语言构建MT系统的从业者提供有用的见解，并突出显示可以补充Data-Sparse设置中大量多语言模型的弱点的研究方向。

As machine translation (MT) metrics improve their correlation with human judgement every year, it is crucial to understand the limitations of such metrics at the segment level. Specifically, it is important to investigate metric behaviour when facing accuracy errors in MT because these can have dangerous consequences in certain contexts (e.g., legal, medical). We curate ACES, a translation accuracy challenge set, consisting of 68 phenomena ranging from simple perturbations at the word/character level to more complex errors based on discourse and real-world knowledge. We use ACES to evaluate a wide range of MT metrics including the submissions to the WMT 2022 metrics shared task and perform several analyses leading to general recommendations for metric developers. We recommend: a) combining metrics with different strengths, b) developing metrics that give more weight to the source and less to surface-level overlap with the reference and c) explicitly modelling additional language-specific information beyond what is available via multilingual embeddings.

关于阿塞拜疆的神经机器翻译（NMT）的研究很少。在本文中，我们将阿塞拜疆 - 英语NMT系统的性能基于一系列技术和数据集的性能。我们评估哪种细分技术在阿塞拜疆翻译上最有效，并基准了阿塞拜疆NMT模型在几个文本领域中的性能。我们的结果表明，虽然Umigram细分改善了NMT的性能，而Azerbaijani翻译模型则比数量更好，但跨域泛化仍然是一个挑战

语言模型预训练的最新进展利用大规模数据集创建多语言模型。但是，这些数据集中大多遗漏了低资源语言。这主要是因为网络上没有很好地表示口语，因此被排除在用于创建数据集的大规模爬网中。此外，这些模型的下游用户仅限于最初选择用于预训练的语言的选择。这项工作调查了如何最佳利用现有的预培训模型来为16种非洲语言创建低资源翻译系统。我们关注两个问题：1）如何将预训练的模型用于初始预培训中未包含的语言？ 2）生成的翻译模型如何有效地转移到新域？为了回答这些问题，我们创建了一个新的非洲新闻语料库，涵盖16种语言，其中8种语言不属于任何现有评估数据集的一部分。我们证明，将两种语言转移到其他语言和其他领域的最有效策略是，以少量的高质量翻译数据微调大型预训练模型。

Automatic machine translation (MT) metrics are widely used to distinguish the translation qualities of machine translation systems across relatively large test sets (system-level evaluation). However, it is unclear if automatic metrics are reliable at distinguishing good translations from bad translations at the sentence level (segment-level evaluation). In this paper, we investigate how useful MT metrics are at detecting the success of a machine translation component when placed in a larger platform with a downstream task. We evaluate the segment-level performance of the most widely used MT metrics (chrF, COMET, BERTScore, etc.) on three downstream cross-lingual tasks (dialogue state tracking, question answering, and semantic parsing). For each task, we only have access to a monolingual task-specific model. We calculate the correlation between the metric's ability to predict a good/bad translation with the success/failure on the final task for the Translate-Test setup. Our experiments demonstrate that all metrics exhibit negligible correlation with the extrinsic evaluation of the downstream outcomes. We also find that the scores provided by neural metrics are not interpretable mostly because of undefined ranges. Our analysis suggests that future MT metrics be designed to produce error labels rather than scores to facilitate extrinsic evaluation.

本文介绍了对土耳其语可用于的语料库和词汇资源的全面调查。我们审查了广泛的资源，重点关注公开可用的资源。除了提供有关可用语言资源的信息外，我们还提供了一组建议，并确定可用于在土耳其语言学和自然语言处理中进行研究和建筑应用的数据中的差距。

手语是聋人和听力受损社区中使用的沟通语言的主要形式。在听力障碍和听力社区之间进行简单互相的沟通，建立一个能够将口语翻译成手语的强大系统，反之亦然是基本的。为此，标志语言识别和生产是制作这种双向系统的两个必要零件。手语识别和生产需要应对一些关键挑战。在这项调查中，我们审查了使用深度学习的手语制作（SLP）和相关领域的最近进展。为了有更现实的观点来签署语言，我们介绍了聋人文化，聋人中心，手语的心理视角，口语和手语之间的主要差异。此外，我们介绍了双向手语翻译系统的基本组成部分，讨论了该领域的主要挑战。此外，简要介绍了SLP中的骨干架构和方法，并提出了拟议的SLP分类物。最后，介绍了SLP和绩效评估的一般框架，也讨论了SLP最近的发展，优势和限制，评论可能的未来研究的可能线条。

语言可以用作再现和执行有害刻板印象和偏差的手段，并被分析在许多研究中。在本文中，我们对自然语言处理中的性别偏见进行了304篇论文。我们分析了社会科学中性别及其类别的定义，并将其连接到NLP研究中性别偏见的正式定义。我们调查了在对性别偏见的研究中应用的Lexica和数据集，然后比较和对比方法来检测和减轻性别偏见。我们发现对性别偏见的研究遭受了四个核心限制。 1）大多数研究将性别视为忽视其流动性和连续性的二元变量。 2）大部分工作都在单机设置中进行英语或其他高资源语言进行。 3）尽管在NLP方法中对性别偏见进行了无数的论文，但我们发现大多数新开发的算法都没有测试他们的偏见模型，并无视他们的工作的伦理考虑。 4）最后，在这一研究线上发展的方法基本缺陷涵盖性别偏差的非常有限的定义，缺乏评估基线和管道。我们建议建议克服这些限制作为未来研究的指导。

State-of-the-art natural language processing systems rely on supervision in the form of annotated data to learn competent models. These models are generally trained on data in a single language (usually English), and cannot be directly used beyond that language. Since collecting data in every language is not realistic, there has been a growing interest in crosslingual language understanding (XLU) and low-resource cross-language transfer. In this work, we construct an evaluation set for XLU by extending the development and test sets of the Multi-Genre Natural Language Inference Corpus (MultiNLI) to 15 languages, including low-resource languages such as Swahili and Urdu. We hope that our dataset, dubbed XNLI, will catalyze research in cross-lingual sentence understanding by providing an informative standard evaluation task. In addition, we provide several baselines for multilingual sentence understanding, including two based on machine translation systems, and two that use parallel data to train aligned multilingual bag-of-words and LSTM encoders. We find that XNLI represents a practical and challenging evaluation suite, and that directly translating the test data yields the best performance among available baselines.

We propose BERTSCORE, an automatic evaluation metric for text generation. Analogously to common metrics, BERTSCORE computes a similarity score for each token in the candidate sentence with each token in the reference sentence. However, instead of exact matches, we compute token similarity using contextual embeddings. We evaluate using the outputs of 363 machine translation and image captioning systems. BERTSCORE correlates better with human judgments and provides stronger model selection performance than existing metrics. Finally, we use an adversarial paraphrase detection task to show that BERTSCORE is more robust to challenging examples when compared to existing metrics.

The word alignment task, despite its prominence in the era of statistical machine translation (SMT), is niche and under-explored today. In this two-part tutorial, we argue for the continued relevance for word alignment. The first part provides a historical background to word alignment as a core component of the traditional SMT pipeline. We zero-in on GIZA++, an unsupervised, statistical word aligner with surprising longevity. Jumping forward to the era of neural machine translation (NMT), we show how insights from word alignment inspired the attention mechanism fundamental to present-day NMT. The second part shifts to a survey approach. We cover neural word aligners, showing the slow but steady progress towards surpassing GIZA++ performance. Finally, we cover the present-day applications of word alignment, from cross-lingual annotation projection, to improving translation.

将标签纳入神经机器翻译（NMT）系统已显示出令人鼓舞的结果，可以帮助翻译诸如命名实体（NE）之类的稀有单词。但是，在低资源环境中翻译NE仍然是一个挑战。在这项工作中，我们研究了在不同级别的资源条件下，在平行语料库中使用标签和NE高核的效果。我们发现标签和复制机制（标记源句子中的NES并将其复制到目标句子）仅在高资源设置中改进翻译。引入复制还会导致翻译不同词性部分（POS）的两极化效果。有趣的是，我们发现高鼻的复制精度始终高于实体。为了避免在引导稀有实体中“硬”复制和利用Hypernym的一种方式，我们引入了“软”标记机制，并发现高水回设置和低资源设置的一致改进。

随着自然语言处理领域的最新发展，在使用不同架构的神经机翻译中的使用情况上升了。变压器架构用于实现最先进的准确性，但它们是训练的非常昂贵的昂贵。每个人都不能拥有由高端GPU和其他资源组成的等待。我们在低计算资源上培训我们的模型，并调查结果。正如预期的那样，变形金刚表现出其他架构，但结果有一些令人惊讶的结果。由更多编码器和解码器组成的变形金刚需要花更多的时间来训练，但有更少的BLEU分数。LSTM在实验中表现良好，比较少花时间训练而不是变压器，适合在具有时间限制的情况下使用。

Large language models (LLMs) that have been trained on multilingual but not parallel text exhibit a remarkable ability to translate between languages. We probe this ability in an in-depth study of the pathways language model (PaLM), which has demonstrated the strongest machine translation (MT) performance among similarly-trained LLMs to date. We investigate various strategies for choosing translation examples for few-shot prompting, concluding that example quality is the most important factor. Using optimized prompts, we revisit previous assessments of PaLM's MT capabilities with more recent test sets, modern MT metrics, and human evaluation, and find that its performance, while impressive, still lags that of state-of-the-art supervised systems. We conclude by providing an analysis of PaLM's MT output which reveals some interesting properties and prospects for future work.