尽管深层神经网络在各种任务中取得了巨大的成功，但它们对不可察觉的对抗性扰动的脆弱性阻碍了他们在现实世界中的部署。最近，与随机合奏的作品相对于经过最小的计算开销的标准对手训练（AT）模型，对对抗性训练（AT）模型的对抗性鲁棒性有了显着改善，这使它们成为安全临界资源限制应用程序的有前途解决方案。但是，这种令人印象深刻的表现提出了一个问题：这些稳健性是由随机合奏提供的吗？在这项工作中，我们从理论和经验上都解决了这个问题。从理论上讲，我们首先确定通常采用的鲁棒性评估方法（例如自适应PGD）在这种情况下提供了错误的安全感。随后，我们提出了一种理论上有效的对抗攻击算法（ARC），即使在自适应PGD无法做到这一点的情况下，也能妥协随机合奏。我们在各种网络体系结构，培训方案，数据集和规范上进行全面的实验，以支持我们的主张，并经验证明，随机合奏实际上比在模型上更容易受到$ \ ell_p $结合的对抗性扰动的影响。我们的代码可以在https://github.com/hsndbk4/arc上找到。

Adaptive attacks have (rightfully) become the de facto standard for evaluating defenses to adversarial examples. We find, however, that typical adaptive evaluations are incomplete. We demonstrate that thirteen defenses recently published at ICLR, ICML and NeurIPS-and which illustrate a diverse set of defense strategies-can be circumvented despite attempting to perform evaluations using adaptive attacks. While prior evaluation papers focused mainly on the end result-showing that a defense was ineffective-this paper focuses on laying out the methodology and the approach necessary to perform an adaptive attack. Some of our attack strategies are generalizable, but no single strategy would have been sufficient for all defenses. This underlines our key message that adaptive attacks cannot be automated and always require careful and appropriate tuning to a given defense. We hope that these analyses will serve as guidance on how to properly perform adaptive attacks against defenses to adversarial examples, and thus will allow the community to make further progress in building more robust models.

在对抗性鲁棒性的背景下，单个模型通常没有足够的力量来防御所有可能的对抗攻击，因此具有亚最佳的鲁棒性。因此，新兴的工作重点是学习神经网络的合奏，以防止对抗性攻击。在这项工作中，我们采取了一种有原则的方法来建立强大的合奏。我们从增强保证金的角度观察了这个问题，并开发了一种学习最大利润的合奏的算法。通过在基准数据集上进行广泛的经验评估，我们表明我们的算法不仅超过了现有的结合技术，而且还以端到端方式训练的大型模型。我们工作的一个重要副产品是边缘最大化的跨肠损失（MCE）损失，这是标准跨侧面（CE）损失的更好替代方法。从经验上讲，我们表明，用MCE损失取代最先进的对抗训练技术中的CE损失会导致显着提高性能。

对抗性可转移性是一种有趣的性质 - 针对一个模型制作的对抗性扰动也是对另一个模型有效的，而这些模型来自不同的模型家庭或培训过程。为了更好地保护ML系统免受对抗性攻击，提出了几个问题：对抗性转移性的充分条件是什么，以及如何绑定它？有没有办法降低对抗的转移性，以改善合奏ML模型的鲁棒性？为了回答这些问题，在这项工作中，我们首先在理论上分析和概述了模型之间的对抗性可转移的充分条件;然后提出一种实用的算法，以减少集合内基础模型之间的可转换，以提高其鲁棒性。我们的理论分析表明，只有促进基础模型梯度之间的正交性不足以确保低可转移性;与此同时，模型平滑度是控制可转移性的重要因素。我们还在某些条件下提供了对抗性可转移性的下界和上限。灵感来自我们的理论分析，我们提出了一种有效的可转让性，减少了平滑（TRS）集合培训策略，以通过实施基础模型之间的梯度正交性和模型平滑度来培训具有低可转换性的强大集成。我们对TRS进行了广泛的实验，并与6个最先进的集合基线进行比较，防止不同数据集的8个白箱攻击，表明所提出的TRS显着优于所有基线。

The field of defense strategies against adversarial attacks has significantly grown over the last years, but progress is hampered as the evaluation of adversarial defenses is often insufficient and thus gives a wrong impression of robustness. Many promising defenses could be broken later on, making it difficult to identify the state-of-the-art. Frequent pitfalls in the evaluation are improper tuning of hyperparameters of the attacks, gradient obfuscation or masking. In this paper we first propose two extensions of the PGD-attack overcoming failures due to suboptimal step size and problems of the objective function. We then combine our novel attacks with two complementary existing ones to form a parameter-free, computationally affordable and user-independent ensemble of attacks to test adversarial robustness. We apply our ensemble to over 50 models from papers published at recent top machine learning and computer vision venues. In all except one of the cases we achieve lower robust test accuracy than reported in these papers, often by more than 10%, identifying several broken defenses.

The evaluation of robustness against adversarial manipulation of neural networks-based classifiers is mainly tested with empirical attacks as methods for the exact computation, even when available, do not scale to large networks. We propose in this paper a new white-box adversarial attack wrt the l p -norms for p ∈ {1, 2, ∞} aiming at finding the minimal perturbation necessary to change the class of a given input. It has an intuitive geometric meaning, yields quickly high quality results, minimizes the size of the perturbation (so that it returns the robust accuracy at every threshold with a single run). It performs better or similar to stateof-the-art attacks which are partially specialized to one l p -norm, and is robust to the phenomenon of gradient masking.

We show how to turn any classifier that classifies well under Gaussian noise into a new classifier that is certifiably robust to adversarial perturbations under the 2 norm. This "randomized smoothing" technique has been proposed recently in the literature, but existing guarantees are loose. We prove a tight robustness guarantee in 2 norm for smoothing with Gaussian noise. We use randomized smoothing to obtain an ImageNet classifier with e.g. a certified top-1 accuracy of 49% under adversarial perturbations with 2 norm less than 0.5 (=127/255). No certified defense has been shown feasible on ImageNet except for smoothing. On smaller-scale datasets where competing approaches to certified 2 robustness are viable, smoothing delivers higher certified accuracies. Our strong empirical results suggest that randomized smoothing is a promising direction for future research into adversarially robust classification. Code and models are available at http: //github.com/locuslab/smoothing.

由明确的反对派制作的对抗例子在机器学习中引起了重要的关注。然而，潜在虚假朋友带来的安全风险基本上被忽视了。在本文中，我们揭示了虚伪的例子的威胁 - 最初被错误分类但是虚假朋友扰乱的投入，以强迫正确的预测。虽然这种扰动的例子似乎是无害的，但我们首次指出，它们可能是恶意地用来隐瞒评估期间不合格（即，不如所需）模型的错误。一旦部署者信任虚伪的性能并在真实应用程序中应用“良好的”模型，即使在良性环境中也可能发生意外的失败。更严重的是，这种安全风险似乎是普遍存在的：我们发现许多类型的不合标准模型易受多个数据集的虚伪示例。此外，我们提供了第一次尝试，以称为虚伪风险的公制表征威胁，并试图通过一些对策来规避它。结果表明对策的有效性，即使在自适应稳健的培训之后，风险仍然是不可忽视的。

Designing powerful adversarial attacks is of paramount importance for the evaluation of $\ell_p$-bounded adversarial defenses. Projected Gradient Descent (PGD) is one of the most effective and conceptually simple algorithms to generate such adversaries. The search space of PGD is dictated by the steepest ascent directions of an objective. Despite the plethora of objective function choices, there is no universally superior option and robustness overestimation may arise from ill-suited objective selection. Driven by this observation, we postulate that the combination of different objectives through a simple loss alternating scheme renders PGD more robust towards design choices. We experimentally verify this assertion on a synthetic-data example and by evaluating our proposed method across 25 different $\ell_{\infty}$-robust models and 3 datasets. The performance improvement is consistent, when compared to the single loss counterparts. In the CIFAR-10 dataset, our strongest adversarial attack outperforms all of the white-box components of AutoAttack (AA) ensemble, as well as the most powerful attacks existing on the literature, achieving state-of-the-art results in the computational budget of our study ($T=100$, no restarts).

Adversarial examples that fool machine learning models, particularly deep neural networks, have been a topic of intense research interest, with attacks and defenses being developed in a tight back-and-forth. Most past defenses are best effort and have been shown to be vulnerable to sophisticated attacks. Recently a set of certified defenses have been introduced, which provide guarantees of robustness to normbounded attacks. However these defenses either do not scale to large datasets or are limited in the types of models they can support. This paper presents the first certified defense that both scales to large networks and datasets (such as Google's Inception network for ImageNet) and applies broadly to arbitrary model types. Our defense, called PixelDP, is based on a novel connection between robustness against adversarial examples and differential privacy, a cryptographically-inspired privacy formalism, that provides a rigorous, generic, and flexible foundation for defense.

We identify obfuscated gradients, a kind of gradient masking, as a phenomenon that leads to a false sense of security in defenses against adversarial examples. While defenses that cause obfuscated gradients appear to defeat iterative optimizationbased attacks, we find defenses relying on this effect can be circumvented. We describe characteristic behaviors of defenses exhibiting the effect, and for each of the three types of obfuscated gradients we discover, we develop attack techniques to overcome it. In a case study, examining noncertified white-box-secure defenses at ICLR 2018, we find obfuscated gradients are a common occurrence, with 7 of 9 defenses relying on obfuscated gradients. Our new attacks successfully circumvent 6 completely, and 1 partially, in the original threat model each paper considers.

This paper investigates recently proposed approaches for defending against adversarial examples and evaluating adversarial robustness. We motivate adversarial risk as an objective for achieving models robust to worst-case inputs. We then frame commonly used attacks and evaluation metrics as defining a tractable surrogate objective to the true adversarial risk. This suggests that models may optimize this surrogate rather than the true adversarial risk. We formalize this notion as obscurity to an adversary, and develop tools and heuristics for identifying obscured models and designing transparent models. We demonstrate that this is a significant problem in practice by repurposing gradient-free optimization techniques into adversarial attacks, which we use to decrease the accuracy of several recently proposed defenses to near zero. Our hope is that our formulations and results will help researchers to develop more powerful defenses.

在测试时间进行优化的自适应防御能力有望改善对抗性鲁棒性。我们对这种自适应测试时间防御措施进行分类，解释其潜在的好处和缺点，并评估图像分类的最新自适应防御能力的代表性。不幸的是，经过我们仔细的案例研究评估时，没有任何显着改善静态防御。有些甚至削弱了基本静态模型，同时增加了推理计算。尽管这些结果令人失望，但我们仍然认为自适应测试时间防御措施是一项有希望的研究途径，因此，我们为他们的彻底评估提供了建议。我们扩展了Carlini等人的清单。（2019年）通过提供针对自适应防御的具体步骤。

防御对抗例子仍然是一个空旷的问题。一个普遍的信念是，推理的随机性增加了寻找对抗性输入的成本。这种辩护的一个例子是将随机转换应用于输入之前，然后将其馈送到模型。在本文中，我们从经验和理论上研究了这种随机预处理的防御措施，并证明它们存在缺陷。首先，我们表明大多数随机防御措施比以前想象的要弱。他们缺乏足够的随机性来承受诸如投影梯度下降之类的标准攻击。这对长期以来的假设产生了怀疑，即随机防御能力无效，旨在逃避确定性的防御和迫使攻击者以整合对转型（EOT）概念的期望。其次，我们表明随机防御与对抗性鲁棒性和模型不变性之间的权衡面临。随着辩护模型获得更多的随机化不变性，它们变得不太有效。未来的工作将需要使这两种效果分解。我们的代码在补充材料中可用。

深度神经网络已成为现代图像识别系统的驱动力。然而，神经网络对抗对抗性攻击的脆弱性对受这些系统影响的人构成严重威胁。在本文中，我们专注于一个真实的威胁模型，中间对手恶意拦截和erturbs网页用户上传在线。这种类型的攻击可以在简单的性能下降之上提高严重的道德问题。为了防止这种攻击，我们设计了一种新的双层优化算法，该算法在对抗对抗扰动的自然图像附近找到点。CiFar-10和Imagenet的实验表明我们的方法可以有效地强制在给定的修改预算范围内的自然图像。我们还显示所提出的方法可以在共同使用随机平滑时提高鲁棒性。

现有针对对抗性示例（例如对抗训练）的防御能力通常假设对手将符合特定或已知的威胁模型，例如固定预算内的$ \ ell_p $扰动。在本文中，我们关注的是在训练过程中辩方假设的威胁模型中存在不匹配的情况，以及在测试时对手的实际功能。我们问一个问题：学习者是否会针对特定的“源”威胁模型进行训练，我们什么时候可以期望鲁棒性在测试时间期间概括为更强大的未知“目标”威胁模型？我们的主要贡献是通过不可预见的对手正式定义学习和概括的问题，这有助于我们从常规的对手的传统角度来理解对抗风险的增加。应用我们的框架，我们得出了将源和目标威胁模型之间的概括差距与特征提取器变化相关联的概括，该限制衡量了在给定威胁模型中提取的特征之间的预期最大差异。基于我们的概括结合，我们提出了具有变化正则化（AT-VR）的对抗训练，该训练在训练过程中降低了特征提取器在源威胁模型中的变化。我们从经验上证明，与标准的对抗训练相比，AT-VR可以改善测试时间内的概括，从而无法预见。此外，我们将变异正则化与感知对抗训练相结合[Laidlaw等。 2021]以实现不可预见的攻击的最新鲁棒性。我们的代码可在https://github.com/inspire-group/variation-regularization上公开获取。

最近，张等人。（2021）基于$ \ ell_ \ infty $ -distance函数开发出一种新的神经网络架构，自然拥有经过认证的$ \ ell_ \ infty $坚固的稳健性。尽管具有出色的理论特性，但到目前为止的模型只能实现与传统网络的可比性。在本文中，我们通过仔细分析培训流程，大大提高了$ \ ell_ \ infty $ -distance网的认证稳健性。特别是，我们展示了$ \ ell_p $ -rexation，这是克服模型的非平滑度的关键方法，导致早期训练阶段的意外的大型嘴唇浓度。这使得优化不足以使用铰链损耗并产生次优溶液。鉴于这些调查结果，我们提出了一种简单的方法来解决上述问题，设计一种新的客观函数，这些功能将缩放的跨熵损失结合在剪切铰链损失。实验表明，使用拟议的培训策略，$ \ ell_ \ infty $-distance网的认证准确性可以从Cifar-10（$ \ epsilon = 8/255 $）的33.30％到40.06％的显着提高到40.06％，同时显着优于表现优势该地区的其他方法。我们的结果清楚地展示了$ \ ell_ \ infty $-distance净的有效性和潜力，以获得认证的稳健性。代码在https://github.com/zbh2047/l_inf-dist-net-v2上获得。

对抗性的鲁棒性已经成为深度学习的核心目标，无论是在理论和实践中。然而，成功的方法来改善对抗的鲁棒性（如逆势训练）在不受干扰的数据上大大伤害了泛化性能。这可能会对对抗性鲁棒性如何影响现实世界系统的影响（即，如果它可以提高未受干扰的数据的准确性），许多人可能选择放弃鲁棒性）。我们提出内插对抗培训，该培训最近雇用了在对抗培训框架内基于插值的基于插值的培训方法。在CiFar -10上，对抗性训练增加了标准测试错误（当没有对手时）从4.43％到12.32％，而我们的内插对抗培训我们保留了对抗性的鲁棒性，同时实现了仅6.45％的标准测试误差。通过我们的技术，强大模型标准误差的相对增加从178.1％降至仅为45.5％。此外，我们提供内插对抗性培训的数学分析，以确认其效率，并在鲁棒性和泛化方面展示其优势。

随机平滑是目前是最先进的方法，用于构建来自Neural Networks的可认真稳健的分类器，以防止$ \ ell_2 $ - vitersarial扰动。在范例下，分类器的稳健性与预测置信度对齐，即，对平滑分类器的较高的置信性意味着更好的鲁棒性。这使我们能够在校准平滑分类器的信仰方面重新思考准确性和鲁棒性之间的基本权衡。在本文中，我们提出了一种简单的训练方案，Coined Spiremix，通过自我混合来控制平滑分类器的鲁棒性：它沿着每个输入对逆势扰动方向进行样品的凸起组合。该提出的程序有效地识别过度自信，在平滑分类器的情况下，作为有限的稳健性的原因，并提供了一种直观的方法来自适应地在这些样本之间设置新的决策边界，以实现更好的鲁棒性。我们的实验结果表明，与现有的最先进的强大培训方法相比，该方法可以显着提高平滑分类器的认证$ \ ell_2 $ -toSpustness。

Adversarial training, in which a network is trained on adversarial examples, is one of the few defenses against adversarial attacks that withstands strong attacks. Unfortunately, the high cost of generating strong adversarial examples makes standard adversarial training impractical on large-scale problems like ImageNet. We present an algorithm that eliminates the overhead cost of generating adversarial examples by recycling the gradient information computed when updating model parameters.Our "free" adversarial training algorithm achieves comparable robustness to PGD adversarial training on the CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 datasets at negligible additional cost compared to natural training, and can be 7 to 30 times faster than other strong adversarial training methods. Using a single workstation with 4 P100 GPUs and 2 days of runtime, we can train a robust model for the large-scale ImageNet classification task that maintains 40% accuracy against PGD attacks. The code is available at https://github.com/ashafahi/free_adv_train.