动机：医学图像分析涉及帮助医师对病变或解剖结构进行定性和定量分析的任务，从而显着提高诊断和预后的准确性和可靠性。传统上，这些任务由医生或医学物理学家完成，并带来两个主要问题：（i）低效率； （ii）受个人经验的偏见。在过去的十年中，已经应用了许多机器学习方法来加速和自动化图像分析过程。与受监督和无监督的学习模型的大量部署相比，在医学图像分析中使用强化学习的尝试很少。这篇评论文章可以作为相关研究的垫脚石。意义：从我们的观察结果来看，尽管近年来增强学习逐渐增强了动力，但医学分析领域的许多研究人员发现很难理解和部署在诊所中。一个原因是缺乏组织良好的评论文章，针对缺乏专业计算机科学背景的读者。本文可能没有提供医学图像分析中所有强化学习模型的全面列表，而是可以帮助读者学习如何制定和解决他们的医学图像分析研究作为强化学习问题。方法和结果：我们从Google Scholar和PubMed中选择了已发表的文章。考虑到相关文章的稀缺性，我们还提供了一些出色的最新预印本。根据图像分析任务的类型对论文进行仔细审查和分类。我们首先回顾了强化学习的基本概念和流行模型。然后，我们探讨了增强学习模型在具有里程碑意义的检测中的应用。最后，我们通过讨论审查的强化学习方法的局限性和可能的​​改进来结束这篇文章。

深度学习已被广​​泛用于医学图像分割，并且录制了录制了该领域深度学习的成功的大量论文。在本文中，我们使用深层学习技术对医学图像分割的全面主题调查。本文进行了两个原创贡献。首先，与传统调查相比，直接将深度学习的文献分成医学图像分割的文学，并为每组详细介绍了文献，我们根据从粗略到精细的多级结构分类目前流行的文献。其次，本文侧重于监督和弱监督的学习方法，而不包括无监督的方法，因为它们在许多旧调查中引入而且他们目前不受欢迎。对于监督学习方法，我们分析了三个方面的文献：骨干网络的选择，网络块的设计，以及损耗功能的改进。对于虚弱的学习方法，我们根据数据增强，转移学习和交互式分割进行调查文献。与现有调查相比，本调查将文献分类为比例不同，更方便读者了解相关理由，并将引导他们基于深度学习方法思考医学图像分割的适当改进。

深度学习属于人工智能领域，机器执行通常需要某种人类智能的任务。类似于大脑的基本结构，深度学习算法包括一种人工神经网络，其类似于生物脑结构。利用他们的感官模仿人类的学习过程，深入学习网络被送入（感官）数据，如文本，图像，视频或声音。这些网络在不同的任务中优于最先进的方法，因此，整个领域在过去几年中看到了指数增长。这种增长在过去几年中每年超过10,000多种出版物。例如，只有在医疗领域中的所有出版物中覆盖的搜索引擎只能在Q3 2020中覆盖所有出版物的子集，用于搜索术语“深度学习”，其中大约90％来自过去三年。因此，对深度学习领域的完全概述已经不可能在不久的将来获得，并且在不久的将来可能会难以获得难以获得子场的概要。但是，有几个关于深度学习的综述文章，这些文章专注于特定的科学领域或应用程序，例如计算机愿景的深度学习进步或在物体检测等特定任务中进行。随着这些调查作为基础，这一贡献的目的是提供对不同科学学科的深度学习的第一个高级，分类的元调查。根据底层数据来源（图像，语言，医疗，混合）选择了类别（计算机愿景，语言处理，医疗信息和其他工程）。此外，我们还审查了每个子类别的常见架构，方法，专业，利弊，评估，挑战和未来方向。

随着深度学习方法的进步，如深度卷积神经网络，残余神经网络，对抗网络的进步。 U-Net架构最广泛利用生物医学图像分割，以解决目标区域或子区域的识别和检测的自动化。在最近的研究中，基于U-Net的方法在不同应用中显示了最先进的性能，以便在脑肿瘤，肺癌，阿尔茨海默，乳腺癌等疾病的早期诊断和治疗中发育计算机辅助诊断系统等，使用各种方式。本文通过描述U-Net框架来提出这些方法的成功，然后通过执行1）型号的U-Net变体进行综合分析，2）模特内分类，建立更好的见解相关的挑战和解决方案。此外，本文还强调了基于U-Net框架在持续的大流行病，严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒2（SARS-COV-2）中的贡献也称为Covid-19。最后，分析了这些U-Net变体的优点和相似性以及生物医学图像分割所涉及的挑战，以发现该领域的未来未来的研究方向。

机器学习和计算机视觉技术近年来由于其自动化，适合性和产生惊人结果的能力而迅速发展。因此，在本文中，我们调查了2014年至2022年之间发表的关键研究，展示了不同的机器学习算法研究人员用来分割肝脏，肝肿瘤和肝脉管结构的研究。我们根据感兴趣的组织（肝果，肝肿瘤或肝毒剂）对被调查的研究进行了划分，强调了同时解决多个任务的研究。此外，机器学习算法被归类为受监督或无监督的，如果属于某个方案的工作量很大，则将进一步分区。此外，对文献和包含上述组织面具的网站发现的不同数据集和挑战进行了彻底讨论，强调了组织者的原始贡献和其他研究人员的贡献。同样，在我们的评论中提到了文献中过度使用的指标，这强调了它们与手头的任务的相关性。最后，强调创新研究人员应对需要解决的差距的关键挑战和未来的方向，例如许多关于船舶分割挑战的研究的稀缺性以及为什么需要早日处理他们的缺席。

医学图像分割是基于人工智能的临床决策系统的基本问题之一。目前的自动医学图像分割方法往往未能满足临床要求。因此，提出了一系列交互式分段算法来利用专家校正信息。然而，现有方法在长期互动之后遭受一些分割炼制失败问题，以及来自专家注释的一些成本问题，这阻碍了临床应用。本文通过引入纠正措施评估，提出了一种互动分割框架，称为交互式医疗细分，通过引入纠正措施评估，该纠正措施评估结合了基于动作的置信度学习和多智能体增强学习（Marl）。通过新颖的基于行动的置信网络建立评估，并从Marl获得纠正措施。基于机密信息，旨在提供更详细的反馈，并在无监督数据上提出模拟标签生成机制，以减少对标记数据的过度依赖性的模拟标签生成机制。各种医学图像数据集的实验结果显示了所提出的算法的显着性能。

人工智能（AI）技术具有重要潜力，可以实现有效，鲁棒和自动的图像表型，包括识别细微图案。基于AI的检测搜索图像空间基于模式和特征来找到兴趣区域。存在一种良性的肿瘤组织学，可以通过使用图像特征的基于AI的分类方法来识别。图像从图像中提取可用于的可覆盖方式，可以通过显式（手工/工程化）和深度辐射谱系框架来探索途径。辐射瘤分析有可能用作非侵入性技术，以准确表征肿瘤，以改善诊断和治疗监测。这项工作介绍基于AI的技术，专注于肿瘤宠物和PET / CT成像，用于不同的检测，分类和预测/预测任务。我们还讨论了所需的努力，使AI技术转换为常规临床工作流程，以及潜在的改进和互补技术，例如在电子健康记录和神经象征性AI技术上使用自然语言处理。

With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.

Clinical diagnostic and treatment decisions rely upon the integration of patient-specific data with clinical reasoning. Cancer presents a unique context that influence treatment decisions, given its diverse forms of disease evolution. Biomedical imaging allows noninvasive assessment of disease based on visual evaluations leading to better clinical outcome prediction and therapeutic planning. Early methods of brain cancer characterization predominantly relied upon statistical modeling of neuroimaging data. Driven by the breakthroughs in computer vision, deep learning became the de facto standard in the domain of medical imaging. Integrated statistical and deep learning methods have recently emerged as a new direction in the automation of the medical practice unifying multi-disciplinary knowledge in medicine, statistics, and artificial intelligence. In this study, we critically review major statistical and deep learning models and their applications in brain imaging research with a focus on MRI-based brain tumor segmentation. The results do highlight that model-driven classical statistics and data-driven deep learning is a potent combination for developing automated systems in clinical oncology.

组织学图像中核和腺体的实例分割是用于癌症诊断，治疗计划和生存分析的计算病理学工作流程中的重要一步。随着现代硬件的出现，大规模质量公共数据集的最新可用性以及社区组织的宏伟挑战已经看到了自动化方法的激增，重点是特定领域的挑战，这对于技术进步和临床翻译至关重要。在这项调查中，深入分析了过去五年（2017-2022）中发表的原子核和腺体实例细分的126篇论文，进行了深入分析，讨论了当前方法的局限性和公开挑战。此外，提出了潜在的未来研究方向，并总结了最先进方法的贡献。此外，还提供了有关公开可用数据集的概括摘要以及关于说明每种挑战的最佳性能方法的巨大挑战的详细见解。此外，我们旨在使读者现有研究的现状和指针在未来的发展方向上开发可用于临床实践的方法，从而可以改善诊断，分级，预后和癌症的治疗计划。据我们所知，以前没有工作回顾了朝向这一方向的组织学图像中的实例细分。

Whole-slide images (WSI) in computational pathology have high resolution with gigapixel size, but are generally with sparse regions of interest, which leads to weak diagnostic relevance and data inefficiency for each area in the slide. Most of the existing methods rely on a multiple instance learning framework that requires densely sampling local patches at high magnification. The limitation is evident in the application stage as the heavy computation for extracting patch-level features is inevitable. In this paper, we develop RLogist, a benchmarking deep reinforcement learning (DRL) method for fast observation strategy on WSIs. Imitating the diagnostic logic of human pathologists, our RL agent learns how to find regions of observation value and obtain representative features across multiple resolution levels, without having to analyze each part of the WSI at the high magnification. We benchmark our method on two whole-slide level classification tasks, including detection of metastases in WSIs of lymph node sections, and subtyping of lung cancer. Experimental results demonstrate that RLogist achieves competitive classification performance compared to typical multiple instance learning algorithms, while having a significantly short observation path. In addition, the observation path given by RLogist provides good decision-making interpretability, and its ability of reading path navigation can potentially be used by pathologists for educational/assistive purposes. Our code is available at: \url{https://github.com/tencent-ailab/RLogist}.

变形金刚占据了自然语言处理领域，最近影响了计算机视觉区域。在医学图像分析领域中，变压器也已成功应用于全栈临床应用，包括图像合成/重建，注册，分割，检测和诊断。我们的论文旨在促进变压器在医学图像分析领域的认识和应用。具体而言，我们首先概述了内置在变压器和其他基本组件中的注意机制的核心概念。其次，我们回顾了针对医疗图像应用程序量身定制的各种变压器体系结构，并讨论其局限性。在这篇综述中，我们调查了围绕在不同学习范式中使用变压器，提高模型效率及其与其他技术的耦合的关键挑战。我们希望这篇评论可以为读者提供医学图像分析领域的读者的全面图片。

The investigation of uncertainty is of major importance in risk-critical applications, such as medical image segmentation. Belief function theory, a formal framework for uncertainty analysis and multiple evidence fusion, has made significant contributions to medical image segmentation, especially since the development of deep learning. In this paper, we provide an introduction to the topic of medical image segmentation methods using belief function theory. We classify the methods according to the fusion step and explain how information with uncertainty or imprecision is modeled and fused with belief function theory. In addition, we discuss the challenges and limitations of present belief function-based medical image segmentation and propose orientations for future research. Future research could investigate both belief function theory and deep learning to achieve more promising and reliable segmentation results.

Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.

Graph mining tasks arise from many different application domains, ranging from social networks, transportation to E-commerce, etc., which have been receiving great attention from the theoretical and algorithmic design communities in recent years, and there has been some pioneering work employing the research-rich Reinforcement Learning (RL) techniques to address graph data mining tasks. However, these graph mining methods and RL models are dispersed in different research areas, which makes it hard to compare them. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive overview of RL and graph mining methods and generalize these methods to Graph Reinforcement Learning (GRL) as a unified formulation. We further discuss the applications of GRL methods across various domains and summarize the method descriptions, open-source codes, and benchmark datasets of GRL methods. Furthermore, we propose important directions and challenges to be solved in the future. As far as we know, this is the latest work on a comprehensive survey of GRL, this work provides a global view and a learning resource for scholars. In addition, we create an online open-source for both interested scholars who want to enter this rapidly developing domain and experts who would like to compare GRL methods.

Reinforcement Learning (RL) is a popular machine learning paradigm where intelligent agents interact with the environment to fulfill a long-term goal. Driven by the resurgence of deep learning, Deep RL (DRL) has witnessed great success over a wide spectrum of complex control tasks. Despite the encouraging results achieved, the deep neural network-based backbone is widely deemed as a black box that impedes practitioners to trust and employ trained agents in realistic scenarios where high security and reliability are essential. To alleviate this issue, a large volume of literature devoted to shedding light on the inner workings of the intelligent agents has been proposed, by constructing intrinsic interpretability or post-hoc explainability. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive review of existing works on eXplainable RL (XRL) and introduce a new taxonomy where prior works are clearly categorized into model-explaining, reward-explaining, state-explaining, and task-explaining methods. We also review and highlight RL methods that conversely leverage human knowledge to promote learning efficiency and performance of agents while this kind of method is often ignored in XRL field. Some challenges and opportunities in XRL are discussed. This survey intends to provide a high-level summarization of XRL and to motivate future research on more effective XRL solutions. Corresponding open source codes are collected and categorized at https://github.com/Plankson/awesome-explainable-reinforcement-learning.

Transformer, originally devised for natural language processing, has also attested significant success in computer vision. Thanks to its super expressive power, researchers are investigating ways to deploy transformers to reinforcement learning (RL) and the transformer-based models have manifested their potential in representative RL benchmarks. In this paper, we collect and dissect recent advances on transforming RL by transformer (transformer-based RL or TRL), in order to explore its development trajectory and future trend. We group existing developments in two categories: architecture enhancement and trajectory optimization, and examine the main applications of TRL in robotic manipulation, text-based games, navigation and autonomous driving. For architecture enhancement, these methods consider how to apply the powerful transformer structure to RL problems under the traditional RL framework, which model agents and environments much more precisely than deep RL methods, but they are still limited by the inherent defects of traditional RL algorithms, such as bootstrapping and "deadly triad". For trajectory optimization, these methods treat RL problems as sequence modeling and train a joint state-action model over entire trajectories under the behavior cloning framework, which are able to extract policies from static datasets and fully use the long-sequence modeling capability of the transformer. Given these advancements, extensions and challenges in TRL are reviewed and proposals about future direction are discussed. We hope that this survey can provide a detailed introduction to TRL and motivate future research in this rapidly developing field.

多发性硬化症（MS）是中枢神经系统的慢性炎症和退行性疾病，其特征在于，白色和灰质的外观与个体患者的神经症状和标志进行地平整相关。磁共振成像（MRI）提供了详细的体内结构信息，允许定量和分类MS病变，其批判性地通知疾病管理。传统上，MS病变在2D MRI切片上手动注释，一个流程效率低，易于观察室内误差。最近，已经提出了自动统计成像分析技术以基于MRI体素强度检测和分段段病变。然而，它们的有效性受到MRI数据采集技术的异质性和MS病变的外观的限制。通过直接从图像学习复杂的病变表现，深度学习技术已经在MS病变分割任务中取得了显着的突破。在这里，我们提供了全面审查最先进的自动统计和深度学习MS分段方法，并讨论当前和未来的临床应用。此外，我们审查了域适应等技术策略，以增强现实世界临床环境中的MS病变分段。

人类生理学中的各种结构遵循特异性形态，通常在非常细的尺度上表达复杂性。这种结构的例子是胸前气道，视网膜血管和肝血管。可以观察到可以观察到可以观察到可以观察到可以观察到空间排列的磁共振成像（MRI），计算机断层扫描（CT），光学相干断层扫描（OCT）等医学成像模式（MRI），计算机断层扫描（CT），可以观察到空间排列的大量2D和3D图像的集合。这些结构在医学成像中的分割非常重要，因为对结构的分析提供了对疾病诊断，治疗计划和预后的见解。放射科医生手动标记广泛的数据通常是耗时且容易出错的。结果，在过去的二十年中，自动化或半自动化的计算模型已成为医学成像的流行研究领域，迄今为止，许多计算模型已经开发出来。在这项调查中，我们旨在对当前公开可用的数据集，细分算法和评估指标进行全面审查。此外，讨论了当前的挑战和未来的研究方向。

脑肿瘤分割是医学图像分析中最具挑战性问题之一。脑肿瘤细分的目标是产生准确描绘脑肿瘤区域。近年来，深入学习方法在解决各种计算机视觉问题时表现出了有希望的性能，例如图像分类，对象检测和语义分割。基于深度学习的方法已经应用于脑肿瘤细分并取得了有希望的结果。考虑到最先进技术所制作的显着突破，我们使用本调查来提供最近开发的深层学习脑肿瘤分割技术的全面研究。在本次调查中选择并讨论了100多篇科学论文，广泛地涵盖了网络架构设计，在不平衡条件下的细分等技术方面，以及多种方式流程。我们还为未来的发展方向提供了富有洞察力的讨论。