深度神经网络(DNN)越来越多地应用于恶意软件检测中,其鲁棒性已广泛争论。传统上,对抗性示例生成方案依赖于详细的模型信息(基于梯度的方法)或许多样本来训练替代模型,在大多数情况下都无法使用。我们提出了基于实例的攻击的概念。我们的方案是可解释的,可以在黑箱环境中起作用。给定一个特定的二进制示例和恶意软件分类器,我们使用数据增强策略来生成足够的数据,我们可以从中训练一个简单的可解释模型。我们通过显示特定二进制的不同部分的重量来解释检测模型。通过分析解释,我们发现数据小节在Windows PE恶意软件检测中起重要作用。我们提出了一个新函数,以保存可以应用于数据子分校的转换算法。通过采用我们提出的二进制多样化技术,我们消除了最加权零件对产生对抗性例子的影响。在某些情况下,我们的算法可以欺骗DNN,成功率接近100 \%。我们的方法的表现优于最新方法。最重要的方面是我们的方法在黑框设置中运行,并且可以通过域知识来验证结果。我们的分析模型可以帮助人们改善恶意软件探测器的鲁棒性。
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恶意软件是跨越多个操作系统和各种文件格式的计算机的最损害威胁之一。为了防止不断增长的恶意软件的威胁,已经提出了巨大的努力来提出各种恶意软件检测方法,试图有效和有效地检测恶意软件。最近的研究表明,一方面,现有的ML和DL能够卓越地检测新出现和以前看不见的恶意软件。然而,另一方面,ML和DL模型本质上易于侵犯对抗性示例形式的对抗性攻击,这通过略微仔细地扰乱了合法输入来混淆目标模型来恶意地产生。基本上,在计算机视觉领域最初广泛地研究了对抗性攻击,并且一些快速扩展到其他域,包括NLP,语音识别甚至恶意软件检测。在本文中,我们专注于Windows操作系统系列中的便携式可执行文件(PE)文件格式的恶意软件,即Windows PE恶意软件,作为在这种对抗设置中研究对抗性攻击方法的代表性案例。具体而言,我们首先首先概述基于ML / DL的Windows PE恶意软件检测的一般学习框架,随后突出了在PE恶意软件的上下文中执行对抗性攻击的三个独特挑战。然后,我们进行全面和系统的审查,以对PE恶意软件检测以及增加PE恶意软件检测的稳健性的相应防御,对近最新的对手攻击进行分类。我们首先向Windows PE恶意软件检测的其他相关攻击结束除了对抗对抗攻击之外,然后对未来的研究方向和机遇脱落。
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尽管机器学习容易受到对抗性示例的影响,但它仍然缺乏在不同应用程序上下文中评估其安全性的系统过程和工具。在本文中,我们讨论了如何使用实际攻击来开发机器学习的自动化和可扩展的安全性评估,并在Windows恶意软件检测中报告了用例。
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我们考虑通过网络攻击者生成对抗性恶意软件的问题,其中攻击者的任务是在现有二进制恶意软件文件中战略性地修改某些字节,以便修改的文件能够避免恶意软件检测器,例如基于机器学习的恶意软件分类器。我们使用从单个公开可用的恶意软件数据集绘制的二进制恶意软件样本进行了评估了三个最近的对抗恶意软件生成技术,并将其进行了比较了它们的性能,以逃避称为MALCONV的基于机器学习的恶意软件分类器。我们的结果表明,在比较技术中,最有效的技术是战略性地修改二进制标题中字节的技术。我们通过讨论对对抗对抗恶意软件生成主题的经验教训和未来的研究方向来结束。
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我们研究了如何修改可执行文件以欺骗恶意软件分类系统。这项工作的主要贡献是一种方法,可以随机注入恶意软件文件,并将其用作攻击以降低分类准确性,也可以作为防御方法,从而增加可用于培训的数据。它尊重操作系统文件格式,以确保在注射后仍将执行恶意软件,并且不会改变其行为。我们重现了五种最先进的恶意软件分类方法来评估我们的注射方案:一种基于GIST+KNN,三个CNN变体和一种封闭式CNN。我们在公共数据集上进行了实验,其中有25个不同家庭的9,339个恶意软件样本。我们的结果表明,恶意软件的大小增加了7%,导致恶意软件家庭分类的准确度下降了25%至40%。他们表明,自动恶意软件分类系统可能不像文献中最初报道的那样值得信赖。我们还使用修改后的麦芽脂肪剂以及原始恶核评估,以提高网络的鲁棒性,以防止上述攻击。结果表明,重新排序恶意软件部分和注入随机数据的组合可以改善分类的整体性能。代码可在https://github.com/adeilsonsilva/malware-injection中找到。
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可提供许多开源和商业恶意软件探测器。然而,这些工具的功效受到新的对抗性攻击的威胁,由此恶意软件试图使用例如机器学习技术来逃避检测。在这项工作中,我们设计了依赖于特征空间和问题空间操纵的对抗逃避攻击。它使用可扩展性导向特征选择来最大限度地通过识别影响检测的最关键的特征来最大限度地逃避。然后,我们将此攻击用作评估若干最先进的恶意软件探测器的基准。我们发现(i)最先进的恶意软件探测器容易受到简单的逃避策略,并且可以使用现成的技术轻松欺骗; (ii)特征空间操纵和问题空间混淆可以组合起来,以便在不需要对探测器的白色盒子理解的情况下实现逃避; (iii)我们可以使用解释性方法(例如,Shap)来指导特征操纵并解释攻击如何跨多个检测器传输。我们的调查结果阐明了当前恶意软件探测器的弱点,以及如何改善它们。
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恶意软件开发人员使用诸如压缩,加密和混淆等技术的组合来绕过反病毒软件。使用抗分析技术的恶意软件可以绕过基于AI的防病毒软件和恶意软件分析工具。因此,对包装文件进行分类是最大的挑战之一。如果恶意软件分类器学习包装工的功能,而不是恶意软件的功能,就会出现问题。用意外错误的数据训练模型变成中毒攻击,对抗攻击和逃避攻击。因此,研究人员应考虑包装以构建适当的恶意软件分类器模型。在本文中,我们提出了一个多步框架,用于分类和识别包装样本,其中包括伪最佳的功能选择,基于机器学习的分类器和Packer识别步骤。在第一步中,我们使用购物车算法和置换重要性来预选重要的20个功能。在第二步中,每个模型都会学习20个预选功能,以分类具有最高性能的包装文件。结果,XGBoost以置换重要性了解了XGBoost预先选择的功能,其精度为99.67%,F1得分为99.46%,并且在曲线下的F1分数表现出最高的性能(f1)。 AUC)为99.98%。在第三步中,我们提出了一种新方法,该方法只能识别包装工,仅针对被分类为众所周知的包装的样品。
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Strengthening the robustness of machine learning-based Android malware detectors in the real world requires incorporating realizable adversarial examples (RealAEs), i.e., AEs that satisfy the domain constraints of Android malware. However, existing work focuses on generating RealAEs in the problem space, which is known to be time-consuming and impractical for adversarial training. In this paper, we propose to generate RealAEs in the feature space, leading to a simpler and more efficient solution. Our approach is driven by a novel interpretation of Android malware properties in the feature space. More concretely, we extract feature-space domain constraints by learning meaningful feature dependencies from data and applying them by constructing a robust feature space. Our experiments on DREBIN, a well-known Android malware detector, demonstrate that our approach outperforms the state-of-the-art defense, Sec-SVM, against realistic gradient- and query-based attacks. Additionally, we demonstrate that generating feature-space RealAEs is faster than generating problem-space RealAEs, indicating its high applicability in adversarial training. We further validate the ability of our learned feature-space domain constraints in representing the Android malware properties by showing that (i) re-training detectors with our feature-space RealAEs largely improves model performance on similar problem-space RealAEs and (ii) using our feature-space domain constraints can help distinguish RealAEs from unrealizable AEs (unRealAEs).
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With rapid progress and significant successes in a wide spectrum of applications, deep learning is being applied in many safety-critical environments. However, deep neural networks have been recently found vulnerable to well-designed input samples, called adversarial examples. Adversarial perturbations are imperceptible to human but can easily fool deep neural networks in the testing/deploying stage. The vulnerability to adversarial examples becomes one of the major risks for applying deep neural networks in safety-critical environments. Therefore, attacks and defenses on adversarial examples draw great attention. In this paper, we review recent findings on adversarial examples for deep neural networks, summarize the methods for generating adversarial examples, and propose a taxonomy of these methods. Under the taxonomy, applications for adversarial examples are investigated. We further elaborate on countermeasures for adversarial examples. In addition, three major challenges in adversarial examples and the potential solutions are discussed.
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随着深度神经网络(DNNS)的进步在许多关键应用中表现出前所未有的性能水平,它们的攻击脆弱性仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。我们考虑在测试时间进行逃避攻击,以防止在受约束的环境中进行深入学习,其中需要满足特征之间的依赖性。这些情况可能自然出现在表格数据中,也可能是特定应用程序域中功能工程的结果,例如网络安全中的威胁检测。我们提出了一个普通的基于迭代梯度的框架,称为围栏,用于制定逃避攻击,考虑到约束域和应用要求的细节。我们将其应用于针对两个网络安全应用培训的前馈神经网络:网络流量僵尸网络分类和恶意域分类,以生成可行的对抗性示例。我们广泛评估了攻击的成功率和绩效,比较它们对几个基线的改进,并分析影响攻击成功率的因素,包括优化目标和数据失衡。我们表明,通过最少的努力(例如,生成12个其他网络连接),攻击者可以将模型的预测从恶意类更改为良性并逃避分类器。我们表明,在具有更高失衡的数据集上训练的模型更容易受到我们的围栏攻击。最后,我们证明了在受限领域进行对抗训练的潜力,以提高针对这些逃避攻击的模型弹性。
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Although deep neural networks (DNNs) have achieved great success in many tasks, they can often be fooled by adversarial examples that are generated by adding small but purposeful distortions to natural examples. Previous studies to defend against adversarial examples mostly focused on refining the DNN models, but have either shown limited success or required expensive computation. We propose a new strategy, feature squeezing, that can be used to harden DNN models by detecting adversarial examples. Feature squeezing reduces the search space available to an adversary by coalescing samples that correspond to many different feature vectors in the original space into a single sample. By comparing a DNN model's prediction on the original input with that on squeezed inputs, feature squeezing detects adversarial examples with high accuracy and few false positives.This paper explores two feature squeezing methods: reducing the color bit depth of each pixel and spatial smoothing. These simple strategies are inexpensive and complementary to other defenses, and can be combined in a joint detection framework to achieve high detection rates against state-of-the-art attacks.
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可解释的人工智能(XAI)是提高机器学习(ML)管道透明度的有前途解决方案。我们将开发和利用XAI方法用于防御和进攻性网络安全任务的研究越来越多(但分散的)缩影。我们确定3个网络安全利益相关者,即模型用户,设计师和对手,将XAI用于ML管道中的5个不同目标,即1)启用XAI的决策支持,2)将XAI应用于安全任务,3)3)通过模型验证通过模型验证xai,4)解释验证和鲁棒性,以及5)对解释的进攻使用。我们进一步分类文献W.R.T.目标安全域。我们对文献的分析表明,许多XAI应用程序的设计都几乎没有了解如何将其集成到分析师工作流程中 - 仅在14%的情况下进行了解释评估的用户研究。文献也很少解开各种利益相关者的角色。特别是,在安全文献中将模型设计师的作用最小化。为此,我们提出了一个说明性用例,突显了模型设计师的作用。我们证明了XAI可以帮助模型验证和可能导致错误结论的案例。系统化和用例使我们能够挑战几个假设,并提出可以帮助塑造网络安全XAI未来的开放问题
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Deep neural networks (DNNs) are one of the most prominent technologies of our time, as they achieve state-of-the-art performance in many machine learning tasks, including but not limited to image classification, text mining, and speech processing. However, recent research on DNNs has indicated ever-increasing concern on the robustness to adversarial examples, especially for security-critical tasks such as traffic sign identification for autonomous driving. Studies have unveiled the vulnerability of a well-trained DNN by demonstrating the ability of generating barely noticeable (to both human and machines) adversarial images that lead to misclassification. Furthermore, researchers have shown that these adversarial images are highly transferable by simply training and attacking a substitute model built upon the target model, known as a black-box attack to DNNs.Similar to the setting of training substitute models, in this paper we propose an effective black-box attack that also only has access to the input (images) and the output (confidence scores) of a targeted DNN. However, different from leveraging attack transferability from substitute models, we propose zeroth order optimization (ZOO) based attacks to directly estimate the gradients of the targeted DNN for generating adversarial examples. We use zeroth order stochastic coordinate descent along with dimension reduction, hierarchical attack and importance sampling techniques to * Pin-Yu Chen and Huan Zhang contribute equally to this work.
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Machine learning (ML) models, e.g., deep neural networks (DNNs), are vulnerable to adversarial examples: malicious inputs modified to yield erroneous model outputs, while appearing unmodified to human observers. Potential attacks include having malicious content like malware identified as legitimate or controlling vehicle behavior. Yet, all existing adversarial example attacks require knowledge of either the model internals or its training data. We introduce the first practical demonstration of an attacker controlling a remotely hosted DNN with no such knowledge. Indeed, the only capability of our black-box adversary is to observe labels given by the DNN to chosen inputs. Our attack strategy consists in training a local model to substitute for the target DNN, using inputs synthetically generated by an adversary and labeled by the target DNN. We use the local substitute to craft adversarial examples, and find that they are misclassified by the targeted DNN. To perform a real-world and properly-blinded evaluation, we attack a DNN hosted by MetaMind, an online deep learning API. We find that their DNN misclassifies 84.24% of the adversarial examples crafted with our substitute. We demonstrate the general applicability of our strategy to many ML techniques by conducting the same attack against models hosted by Amazon and Google, using logistic regression substitutes. They yield adversarial examples misclassified by Amazon and Google at rates of 96.19% and 88.94%. We also find that this black-box attack strategy is capable of evading defense strategies previously found to make adversarial example crafting harder.
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已证明AI方法在Android恶意软件检测中产生令人印象深刻的性能。然而,大多数基于AI的方法在没有模型推理的情况下以黑盒方式预测可疑样本。网络安全和AI从业者对模型的解释和透明度来确保值得信赖性的预期。在本文中,我们为应用于Android恶意软件检测的AI模型提出了一种新型模型 - 不可知解释方法。我们所提出的方法识别和量化数据功能与预测的两个步骤:i)通过操纵功能的值生成合成数据的数据扰动; ii)具有最小特征值的变化的扰动数据上的预测分数的显着变化的特征归因值的优化。所提出的方法由三个实验验证。我们首先表明我们所提出的模型解释方法可以有助于发现AI模型是如何通过对抗的样本定量的。在以下实验中,我们分别比较了我们所提出的方法的解释性和保真度与最先进的。
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普遍的对策扰动是图像不可思议的和模型 - 无关的噪声,当添加到任何图像时可以误导训练的深卷积神经网络进入错误的预测。由于这些普遍的对抗性扰动可以严重危害实践深度学习应用的安全性和完整性,因此现有技术使用额外的神经网络来检测输入图像源的这些噪声的存在。在本文中,我们展示了一种攻击策略,即通过流氓手段激活(例如,恶意软件,木马)可以通过增强AI硬件加速器级的对抗噪声来绕过这些现有对策。我们使用Conv2D功能软件内核的共同仿真和FuseSoC环境下的硬件的Verilog RTL模型的共同仿真,展示了关于几个深度学习模型的加速度普遍对抗噪声。
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恶意应用程序(尤其是针对Android平台的应用程序)对开发人员和最终用户构成了严重威胁。许多研究工作都致力于开发有效的方法来防御Android恶意软件。但是,鉴于Android恶意软件的爆炸性增长以及恶意逃避技术(如混淆和反思)的持续发展,基于手动规则或传统机器学习的Android恶意软件防御方法可能无效。近年来,具有强大功能抽象能力的主要研究领域称为“深度学习”(DL),在各个领域表现出了令人信服和有希望的表现,例如自然语言处理和计算机视觉。为此,采用深度学习技术来阻止Android恶意软件攻击,最近引起了广泛的研究关注。然而,没有系统的文献综述着重于针对Android恶意软件防御的深度学习方法。在本文中,我们进行了系统的文献综述,以搜索和分析在Android环境中恶意软件防御的背景下采用了如何应用的。结果,确定了涵盖2014 - 2021年期间的132项研究。我们的调查表明,尽管大多数这些来源主要考虑基于Android恶意软件检测的基于DL,但基于其他方案的53项主要研究(40.1%)设计防御方法。这篇综述还讨论了基于DL的Android恶意软件防御措施中的研究趋势,研究重点,挑战和未来的研究方向。
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The authors thank Nicholas Carlini (UC Berkeley) and Dimitris Tsipras (MIT) for feedback to improve the survey quality. We also acknowledge X. Huang (Uni. Liverpool), K. R. Reddy (IISC), E. Valle (UNICAMP), Y. Yoo (CLAIR) and others for providing pointers to make the survey more comprehensive.
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Adaptive attacks have (rightfully) become the de facto standard for evaluating defenses to adversarial examples. We find, however, that typical adaptive evaluations are incomplete. We demonstrate that thirteen defenses recently published at ICLR, ICML and NeurIPS-and which illustrate a diverse set of defense strategies-can be circumvented despite attempting to perform evaluations using adaptive attacks. While prior evaluation papers focused mainly on the end result-showing that a defense was ineffective-this paper focuses on laying out the methodology and the approach necessary to perform an adaptive attack. Some of our attack strategies are generalizable, but no single strategy would have been sufficient for all defenses. This underlines our key message that adaptive attacks cannot be automated and always require careful and appropriate tuning to a given defense. We hope that these analyses will serve as guidance on how to properly perform adaptive attacks against defenses to adversarial examples, and thus will allow the community to make further progress in building more robust models.
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尽管机器学习系统的效率和可扩展性,但最近的研究表明,许多分类方法,尤其是深神经网络(DNN),易受对抗的例子;即,仔细制作欺骗训练有素的分类模型的例子,同时无法区分从自然数据到人类。这使得在安全关键区域中应用DNN或相关方法可能不安全。由于这个问题是由Biggio等人确定的。 (2013)和Szegedy等人。(2014年),在这一领域已经完成了很多工作,包括开发攻击方法,以产生对抗的例子和防御技术的构建防范这些例子。本文旨在向统计界介绍这一主题及其最新发展,主要关注对抗性示例的产生和保护。在数值实验中使用的计算代码(在Python和R)公开可用于读者探讨调查的方法。本文希望提交人们将鼓励更多统计学人员在这种重要的令人兴奋的领域的产生和捍卫对抗的例子。
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