培训广泛和深度神经网络(DNN)需要大量的存储资源,例如内存,因为在转发传播期间必须在存储器中保存中间激活数据,然后恢复以便向后传播。然而,由于硬件设计约束,诸如GPU之类的最先进的加速器(例如GPU)仅配备了非常有限的存储容量,这显着限制了在训练大规模DNN时的最大批量大小和性能加速。传统的记忆保存技术均受性能开销或受限互连带宽或特定互连技术的约束。在本文中,我们提出了一种新颖的记忆高效的CNN训练框架(称为Comet),利用错误界限的损耗压缩来显着降低训练的内存要求,以允许培训更大的模型或加速培训。不同于采用基于图像的有损压缩机(例如JPEG)的最先进的解决方案来压缩激活数据,我们的框架故意采用严格的错误控制机制来采用错误界限的损耗压缩。具体而言,我们对从改变的激活数据传播到梯度的压缩误差传播的理论分析,并经验探讨改变梯度对训练过程的影响。基于这些分析,我们优化了误报的损耗压缩,并提出了一种用于激活数据压缩的自适应误差控制方案。我们评估我们对最先进的解决方案的设计,其中包含五个广泛采用的CNN和Imagenet DataSet。实验表明,我们所提出的框架可以在基线训练中显着降低13.5倍,并分别在另一个最先进的基于压缩框架上的1.8倍,几乎没有准确性损失。
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深度学习领域目睹了对极端计算和内存密集型神经网络的显着转变。这些较新的较大模型使研究人员能够推进各种领域的最先进的工具。这种现象刺激了在更多的硬件加速器上产生了针对神经网络的分布式训练的算法。在本文中,我们讨论并比较了当前的最先进的框架,以实现大规模的分布式深度学习。首先,我们调查分布式学习中的当前实践,并确定所使用的不同类型的并行性。然后,我们提出了对大型图像和语言培训任务的性能进行了经验结果。此外,我们解决了他们的统计效率和内存消耗行为。根据我们的结果,我们讨论了阻碍性能的每个框架的算法和实现部分。
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While machine learning is traditionally a resource intensive task, embedded systems, autonomous navigation, and the vision of the Internet of Things fuel the interest in resource-efficient approaches. These approaches aim for a carefully chosen trade-off between performance and resource consumption in terms of computation and energy. The development of such approaches is among the major challenges in current machine learning research and key to ensure a smooth transition of machine learning technology from a scientific environment with virtually unlimited computing resources into everyday's applications. In this article, we provide an overview of the current state of the art of machine learning techniques facilitating these real-world requirements. In particular, we focus on deep neural networks (DNNs), the predominant machine learning models of the past decade. We give a comprehensive overview of the vast literature that can be mainly split into three non-mutually exclusive categories: (i) quantized neural networks, (ii) network pruning, and (iii) structural efficiency. These techniques can be applied during training or as post-processing, and they are widely used to reduce the computational demands in terms of memory footprint, inference speed, and energy efficiency. We also briefly discuss different concepts of embedded hardware for DNNs and their compatibility with machine learning techniques as well as potential for energy and latency reduction. We substantiate our discussion with experiments on well-known benchmark datasets using compression techniques (quantization, pruning) for a set of resource-constrained embedded systems, such as CPUs, GPUs and FPGAs. The obtained results highlight the difficulty of finding good trade-offs between resource efficiency and predictive performance.
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Deep neural networks (DNNs) are currently widely used for many artificial intelligence (AI) applications including computer vision, speech recognition, and robotics. While DNNs deliver state-of-the-art accuracy on many AI tasks, it comes at the cost of high computational complexity. Accordingly, techniques that enable efficient processing of DNNs to improve energy efficiency and throughput without sacrificing application accuracy or increasing hardware cost are critical to the wide deployment of DNNs in AI systems.This article aims to provide a comprehensive tutorial and survey about the recent advances towards the goal of enabling efficient processing of DNNs. Specifically, it will provide an overview of DNNs, discuss various hardware platforms and architectures that support DNNs, and highlight key trends in reducing the computation cost of DNNs either solely via hardware design changes or via joint hardware design and DNN algorithm changes. It will also summarize various development resources that enable researchers and practitioners to quickly get started in this field, and highlight important benchmarking metrics and design considerations that should be used for evaluating the rapidly growing number of DNN hardware designs, optionally including algorithmic co-designs, being proposed in academia and industry.The reader will take away the following concepts from this article: understand the key design considerations for DNNs; be able to evaluate different DNN hardware implementations with benchmarks and comparison metrics; understand the trade-offs between various hardware architectures and platforms; be able to evaluate the utility of various DNN design techniques for efficient processing; and understand recent implementation trends and opportunities.
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扩展培训工作负载的能力是深度学习的关键性能推动者之一。主要缩放方法是基于数据并行GPU的培训,该培训已经被硬件和软件支持高效地支持高效的GPU通信,特别是通过带宽过度曝光。此支持以A价格出现:相对于其“消费者级”对应物,“云级”服务器之间存在幅度成本差异,但相对于其“消费者级”对应物,虽然服务器级和消费者级GPU可以具有类似的计算信封。在本文中,我们调查了昂贵的硬件过度控制方法是否可以通过算法和系统设计所涵盖,并提出称为CGX的框架,为通信压缩提供有效的软件支持。我们认为,在没有硬件支持的情况下,该框架能够从消费者级多GPU系统中删除通信瓶颈:在没有硬件支持的情况下:在培训现代模型和全部准确性方面时,我们的框架可以在商品上进行2-3倍的自动加速系统使用8个消费者级NVIDIA RTX 3090 GPU,并使其超越NVIDIA DGX-1服务器的吞吐量,其具有类似的峰值闪光,但是从带宽过度提供的益处。
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深度神经网络(DNN)的记录断裂性能具有沉重的参数化,导致外部动态随机存取存储器(DRAM)进行存储。 DRAM访问的禁用能量使得在资源受限的设备上部署DNN是不普遍的,呼叫最小化重量和数据移动以提高能量效率。我们呈现SmartDeal(SD),算法框架,以进行更高成本的存储器存储/访问的较低成本计算,以便在推理和培训中积极提高存储和能量效率。 SD的核心是一种具有结构约束的新型重量分解,精心制作以释放硬件效率潜力。具体地,我们将每个重量张量分解为小基矩阵的乘积以及大的结构稀疏系数矩阵,其非零被量化为-2的功率。由此产生的稀疏和量化的DNN致力于为数据移动和重量存储而大大降低的能量,因为由于稀疏的比特 - 操作和成本良好的计算,恢复原始权重的最小开销。除了推理之外,我们采取了另一次飞跃来拥抱节能培训,引入创新技术,以解决培训时出现的独特障碍,同时保留SD结构。我们还设计专用硬件加速器,充分利用SD结构来提高实际能源效率和延迟。我们在不同的设置中对多个任务,模型和数据集进行实验。结果表明:1)应用于推理,SD可实现高达2.44倍的能效,通过实际硬件实现评估; 2)应用于培训,储存能量降低10.56倍,减少了10.56倍和4.48倍,与最先进的训练基线相比,可忽略的准确性损失。我们的源代码在线提供。
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深度学习在广泛的AI应用方面取得了有希望的结果。较大的数据集和模型一致地产生更好的性能。但是,我们一般花费更长的培训时间,以更多的计算和沟通。在本调查中,我们的目标是在模型精度和模型效率方面提供关于大规模深度学习优化的清晰草图。我们调查最常用于优化的算法,详细阐述了大批量培训中出现的泛化差距的可辩论主题,并审查了解决通信开销并减少内存足迹的SOTA策略。
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模型二进制化是一种压缩神经网络并加速其推理过程的有效方法。但是,1位模型和32位模型之间仍然存在显着的性能差距。实证研究表明,二进制会导致前进和向后传播中的信息损失。我们提出了一个新颖的分布敏感信息保留网络(DIR-NET),该网络通过改善内部传播和引入外部表示,将信息保留在前后传播中。 DIR-NET主要取决于三个技术贡献:(1)最大化二进制(IMB)的信息:最小化信息损失和通过重量平衡和标准化同时同时使用权重/激活的二进制误差; (2)分布敏感的两阶段估计器(DTE):通过共同考虑更新能力和准确的梯度来通过分配敏感的软近似来保留梯度的信息; (3)代表性二进制 - 意识蒸馏(RBD):通过提炼完整精确和二元化网络之间的表示来保留表示信息。 DIR-NET从统一信息的角度研究了BNN的前进过程和后退过程,从而提供了对网络二进制机制的新见解。我们的DIR-NET中的三种技术具有多功能性和有效性,可以在各种结构中应用以改善BNN。关于图像分类和客观检测任务的综合实验表明,我们的DIR-NET始终优于主流和紧凑型体系结构(例如Resnet,vgg,vgg,EfficityNet,darts和mobilenet)下最新的二进制方法。此外,我们在现实世界中的资源有限设备上执行DIR-NET,该设备可实现11.1倍的存储空间和5.4倍的速度。
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我们日常生活中的深度学习是普遍存在的,包括自驾车,虚拟助理,社交网络服务,医疗服务,面部识别等,但是深度神经网络在训练和推理期间需要大量计算资源。该机器学习界主要集中在模型级优化(如深度学习模型的架构压缩),而系统社区则专注于实施级别优化。在其间,在算术界中提出了各种算术级优化技术。本文在模型,算术和实施级技术方面提供了关于资源有效的深度学习技术的调查,并确定了三种不同级别技术的资源有效的深度学习技术的研究差距。我们的调查基于我们的资源效率度量定义,阐明了较低级别技术的影响,并探讨了资源有效的深度学习研究的未来趋势。
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激活压缩训练〜(ACT)已被证明是减少训练深神经网络中记忆消耗的一种有希望的方法。但是,现有的ACT工作依赖于在深神经网络(DNN)训练期间寻找最佳的位宽度以减少量化噪声,从而使过程变得复杂且透明。为此,我们提出了一种简单有效的DNN培训方法。我们的方法是由观察结果激励的:\ emph {DNN向后传播主要取决于激活图的低频组分〜(LFC),而不是高频组件〜(HFC)}。它表明激活图的HFC在DNN训练过程中是高度冗余和可压缩的,这激发了我们提出的双重激活精度〜(分裂)。在培训期间,分裂估计激活图的LFC和HFC,并将HFC压缩到低精度副本中以消除冗余。这可以大大减少记忆消耗,而不会对DNN向后传播的精度产生负面影响。这样,部门可以实现可比的表现与正常培训。三个基准数据集的实验结果表明,在记忆消耗,模型准确性和跑步速度方面,分裂的表现优于最先进的基线方法。
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二阶优化方法,尤其是D-KFAC(分布式Kronecker近似曲率)算法,在加速GPU簇上加速了深神经网络(DNN)训练方面已获得了吸引力。但是,现有的D-KFAC算法需要计算和传达大量二阶信息,即Kronecker因素(KFS),在预处理梯度之前,导致大量计算和通信开销以及高存储器足迹。在本文中,我们提出了DP-KFAC,这是一种新颖的分布式预处理方案,该方案将不同DNN层的KF构造任务分配给不同的工人。 DP-KFAC不仅保留了现有D-KFAC算法的收敛性属性,而且还可以带来三个好处:减少计算开销在构造KFS中,没有KFS的通信和低内存足迹。在64-GPU群集上进行的广泛实验表明,DP-KFAC将开销的计算开销降低了1.55 x-1.65x,通信成本降低2.79x-3.15x,并且内存足迹在每秒二阶更新中降低1.14x-1.47 x与最先进的D-KFAC方法相比。
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混合精确的深神经网络达到了硬件部署所需的能源效率和吞吐量,尤其是在资源有限的情况下,而无需牺牲准确性。但是,不容易找到保留精度的最佳每层钻头精度,尤其是在创建巨大搜索空间的大量模型,数据集和量化技术中。为了解决这一困难,最近出现了一系列文献,并且已经提出了一些实现有希望的准确性结果的框架。在本文中,我们首先总结了文献中通常使用的量化技术。然后,我们对混合精液框架进行了彻底的调查,该调查是根据其优化技术进行分类的,例如增强学习和量化技术,例如确定性舍入。此外,讨论了每个框架的优势和缺点,我们在其中呈现并列。我们最终为未来的混合精液框架提供了指南。
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本文介绍了有关如何架构,设计和优化深神经网络(DNN)的最新概述,以提高性能并保留准确性。该论文涵盖了一组跨越整个机器学习处理管道的优化。我们介绍两种类型的优化。第一个改变了DNN模型,需要重新训练,而第二个则不训练。我们专注于GPU优化,但我们认为提供的技术可以与其他AI推理平台一起使用。为了展示DNN模型优化,我们在流行的Edge AI推理平台(Nvidia Jetson Agx Xavier)上改善了光流的最先进的深层网络体系结构之一,RAFT ARXIV:2003.12039。
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遇到错误的损耗压缩正成为必不可少的技术,即当今科学项目的成功,并在模拟或仪器数据获取过程中产生了大量数据。它不仅可以显着减少数据大小,而且还可以基于用户指定的错误界限控制压缩错误。自动编码器(AE)模型已被广泛用于图像压缩中,但是很少有基于AE的压缩方法支持遇到错误的功能,这是科学应用所要求的。为了解决这个问题,我们使用卷积自动编码器探索以改善科学数据的错误损失压缩,并提供以下三个关键贡献。 (1)我们对各种自动编码器模型的特性进行了深入的研究,并根据SZ模型开发了基于错误的自动编码器的框架。 (2)我们在设计的基于AE的错误压缩框架中优化了主要阶段的压缩质量,并微调块大小和潜在尺寸,并优化了潜在向量的压缩效率。 (3)我们使用五个现实世界的科学数据集评估了我们提出的解决方案,并将其与其他六项相关作品进行了比较。实验表明,我们的解决方案在测试中的所有压缩机中表现出非常具有竞争性的压缩质量。从绝对的角度来看,与SZ2.1和ZFP相比,在高压比的情况下,它可以获得更好的压缩质量(压缩率和相同数据失真的100%〜800%提高)。
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Novel artificial intelligence (AI) technology has expedited various scientific research, e.g., cosmology, physics and bioinformatics, inevitably becoming a significant category of workload on high performance computing (HPC) systems. Existing AI benchmarks tend to customize well-recognized AI applications, so as to evaluate the AI performance of HPC systems under predefined problem size, in terms of datasets and AI models. Due to lack of scalability on the problem size, static AI benchmarks might be under competent to help understand the performance trend of evolving AI applications on HPC systems, in particular, the scientific AI applications on large-scale systems. In this paper, we propose a scalable evaluation methodology (SAIH) for analyzing the AI performance trend of HPC systems with scaling the problem sizes of customized AI applications. To enable scalability, SAIH builds a set of novel mechanisms for augmenting problem sizes. As the data and model constantly scale, we can investigate the trend and range of AI performance on HPC systems, and further diagnose system bottlenecks. To verify our methodology, we augment a cosmological AI application to evaluate a real HPC system equipped with GPUs as a case study of SAIH.
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原则上,稀疏的神经网络应该比传统的密集网络更有效。大脑中的神经元表现出两种类型的稀疏性;它们稀疏地相互连接和稀疏活跃。当组合时,这两种类型的稀疏性,称为重量稀疏性和激活稀疏性,提出了通过两个数量级来降低神经网络的计算成本。尽管存在这种潜力,但今天的神经网络只使用重量稀疏提供适度的性能益处,因为传统的计算硬件无法有效地处理稀疏网络。在本文中,我们引入了互补稀疏性,这是一种显着提高现有硬件对双稀疏网络性能的新技术。我们证明我们可以实现高性能运行的重量稀疏网络,我们可以通过结合激活稀疏性来乘以这些加速。采用互补稀疏性,我们显示出对FPGA的推断的吞吐量和能效提高了100倍。我们分析了典型的商业卷积网络等各种内核的可扩展性和资源权衡,例如Resnet-50和MobileNetv2。我们的互补稀疏性的结果表明,重量加激活稀疏性可以是有效的缩放未来AI模型的有效组合。
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Deep learning based recommendation models (DLRM) are widely used in several business critical applications. Training such recommendation models efficiently is challenging primarily because they consist of billions of embedding-based parameters which are often stored remotely leading to significant overheads from embedding access. By profiling existing DLRM training, we observe that only 8.5% of the iteration time is spent in forward/backward pass while the remaining time is spent on embedding and model synchronization. Our key insight in this paper is that access to embeddings have a specific structure and pattern which can be used to accelerate training. We observe that embedding accesses are heavily skewed, with almost 1% of embeddings represent more than 92% of total accesses. Further, we observe that during training we can lookahead at future batches to determine exactly which embeddings will be needed at what iteration in the future. Based on these insight, we propose Bagpipe, a system for training deep recommendation models that uses caching and prefetching to overlap remote embedding accesses with the computation. We designed an Oracle Cacher, a new system component which uses our lookahead algorithm to generate optimal cache update decisions and provide strong consistency guarantees. Our experiments using three datasets and two models shows that our approach provides a speed up of up to 6.2x compared to state of the art baselines, while providing the same convergence and reproducibility guarantees as synchronous training.
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Large deep learning models offer significant accuracy gains, but training billions to trillions of parameters is challenging. Existing solutions such as data and model parallelisms exhibit fundamental limitations to fit these models into limited device memory, while obtaining computation, communication and development efficiency. We develop a novel solution, Zero Redundancy Optimizer (ZeRO), to optimize memory, vastly improving training speed while increasing the model size that can be efficiently trained. ZeRO eliminates memory redundancies in data-and model-parallel training while retaining low communication volume and high computational granularity, allowing us to scale the model size proportional to the number of devices with sustained high efficiency. Our analysis on memory requirements and communication volume demonstrates: ZeRO has the potential to scale beyond 1 Trillion parameters using today's hardware.We implement and evaluate ZeRO: it trains large models of over 100B parameter with super-linear speedup on 400 GPUs, achieving throughput of 15 Petaflops. This represents an 8x increase in model size and 10x increase in achievable performance over state-of-the-art. In terms of usability, ZeRO can train large models of up to 13B parameters (e.g., larger than Megatron GPT 8.3B and T5 11B) without requiring model parallelism which is harder for scientists to apply. Last but not the least, researchers have used the system breakthroughs of ZeRO to create the world's largest language model (17B parameters) with record breaking accuracy.
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图形神经网络(GNN)是具有无核数据的应用的有前途的方法。但是,具有数亿节点的大规模图上的培训GNN既是资源又是耗时的。与DNN不同,GNN通常具有更大的内存足迹,因此GPU内存能力和PCIE带宽是GNN培训中的主要资源瓶颈。为了解决此问题,我们提出分叉:一种图形量化方法,通过显着减少内存足迹和PCIE带宽要求来加速GNN训练,以便GNN可以充分利用GPU计算功能。我们的关键见解是,与DNN不同,GNN不太容易发生量化引起的输入特征的信息丢失。我们确定图形特征量化中的主要准确性影响因素,从理论上证明,分叉训练会收敛到网络,在该网络中,损失在未压缩网络的最佳损失的$ \ epsilon $之内。我们使用几种流行的GNN模型和数据集对分叉进行了广泛的评估,包括最大的公共图数据集MAG240M上的图形。结果表明,分叉达到30以上的压缩率,并在边际准确性损失的情况下提高了GNN训练速度200%-320%。特别是,分叉在一小时内仅使用四个GPU在MAG240M上的训练图来实现记录。
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CNN-based surrogates have become prevalent in scientific applications to replace conventional time-consuming physical approaches. Although these surrogates can yield satisfactory results with significantly lower computation costs over small training datasets, our benchmarking results show that data-loading overhead becomes the major performance bottleneck when training surrogates with large datasets. In practice, surrogates are usually trained with high-resolution scientific data, which can easily reach the terabyte scale. Several state-of-the-art data loaders are proposed to improve the loading throughput in general CNN training; however, they are sub-optimal when applied to the surrogate training. In this work, we propose SOLAR, a surrogate data loader, that can ultimately increase loading throughput during the training. It leverages our three key observations during the benchmarking and contains three novel designs. Specifically, SOLAR first generates a pre-determined shuffled index list and accordingly optimizes the global access order and the buffer eviction scheme to maximize the data reuse and the buffer hit rate. It then proposes a tradeoff between lightweight computational imbalance and heavyweight loading workload imbalance to speed up the overall training. It finally optimizes its data access pattern with HDF5 to achieve a better parallel I/O throughput. Our evaluation with three scientific surrogates and 32 GPUs illustrates that SOLAR can achieve up to 24.4X speedup over PyTorch Data Loader and 3.52X speedup over state-of-the-art data loaders.
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