多机构增强学习(MARL)已成为解决分散决策问题的有用方法。近年来提出的许多突破性算法一直在稳步增长。在这项工作中,我们仔细研究了这一快速发展,重点是在合作Marl的大量研究中采用的评估方法。通过对先前工作进行详细的荟萃分析,涵盖了从2016年至2022年接受出版的75篇论文,我们引起了人们对真正进步率的质疑的令人担忧的趋势。我们在更广泛的背景下进一步考虑了这些趋势,并从单一AGENT RL文献中获得了有关类似问题的灵感,这些建议以及仍然适用于MARL的建议。将这些建议与我们分析的新见解相结合,我们提出了合作MARL的标准化绩效评估方案。我们认为,这样的标准协议,如果被广泛采用,将大大提高未来研究的有效性和信誉,使复制和可重复性更加容易,并提高该领域的能力,通过能够通过能够准确评估进度的速度进行跨不同作品的合理比较。最后,我们在我们的项目网站上公开发布荟萃分析数据,以供未来的评估研究:https://sites.google.com/view/marl-andard-protocol
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多代理深度增强学习(Marl)缺乏缺乏共同使用的评估任务和标准,使方法之间的比较困难。在这项工作中,我们提供了一个系统评估,并比较了三种不同类别的Marl算法(独立学习,集中式多代理政策梯度,价值分解)在各种协作多智能经纪人学习任务中。我们的实验是在不同学习任务中作为算法的预期性能的参考,我们为不同学习方法的有效性提供了见解。我们开源EPYMARL,它将Pymarl CodeBase扩展到包括其他算法,并允许灵活地配置算法实现细节,例如参数共享。最后,我们开源两种环境,用于多智能经纪研究,重点关注稀疏奖励下的协调。
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近端策略优化(PPO)是一种普遍存在的上利期内学习算法,但在多代理设置中的非政策学习算法所使用的算法明显少得多。这通常是由于认为PPO的样品效率明显低于多代理系统中的销售方法。在这项工作中,我们仔细研究了合作多代理设置中PPO的性能。我们表明,基于PPO的多代理算法在四个受欢迎的多代理测试台上取得了令人惊讶的出色表现:粒子世界环境,星际争霸多代理挑战,哈纳比挑战赛和Google Research Football,并具有最少的超参数调谐任何特定领域的算法修改或架构。重要的是,与强大的非政策方法相比,PPO通常在最终奖励和样本效率中都能取得竞争性或优越的结果。最后,通过消融研究,我们分析了对PPO的经验表现至关重要的实施和高参数因素,并就这些因素提供了具体的实用建议。我们的结果表明,在使用这些实践时,简单的基于PPO的方法在合作多代理增强学习中是强大的基线。源代码可在https://github.com/marlbenchmark/on-policy上发布。
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深度强化学习(RL)导致了许多最近和开创性的进步。但是,这些进步通常以培训的基础体系结构的规模增加以及用于训练它们的RL算法的复杂性提高,而均以增加规模的成本。这些增长反过来又使研究人员更难迅速原型新想法或复制已发表的RL算法。为了解决这些问题,这项工作描述了ACME,这是一个用于构建新型RL算法的框架,这些框架是专门设计的,用于启用使用简单的模块化组件构建的代理,这些组件可以在各种执行范围内使用。尽管ACME的主要目标是为算法开发提供一个框架,但第二个目标是提供重要或最先进算法的简单参考实现。这些实现既是对我们的设计决策的验证,也是对RL研究中可重复性的重要贡献。在这项工作中,我们描述了ACME内部做出的主要设计决策,并提供了有关如何使用其组件来实施各种算法的进一步详细信息。我们的实验为许多常见和最先进的算法提供了基准,并显示了如何为更大且更复杂的环境扩展这些算法。这突出了ACME的主要优点之一,即它可用于实现大型,分布式的RL算法,这些算法可以以较大的尺度运行,同时仍保持该实现的固有可读性。这项工作提出了第二篇文章的版本,恰好与模块化的增加相吻合,对离线,模仿和从演示算法学习以及作为ACME的一部分实现的各种新代理。
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The availability of challenging benchmarks has played a key role in the recent progress of machine learning. In cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning, the StarCraft Multi-Agent Challenge (SMAC) has become a popular testbed for centralised training with decentralised execution. However, after years of sustained improvement on SMAC, algorithms now achieve near-perfect performance. In this work, we conduct new analysis demonstrating that SMAC is not sufficiently stochastic to require complex closed-loop policies. In particular, we show that an open-loop policy conditioned only on the timestep can achieve non-trivial win rates for many SMAC scenarios. To address this limitation, we introduce SMACv2, a new version of the benchmark where scenarios are procedurally generated and require agents to generalise to previously unseen settings (from the same distribution) during evaluation. We show that these changes ensure the benchmark requires the use of closed-loop policies. We evaluate state-of-the-art algorithms on SMACv2 and show that it presents significant challenges not present in the original benchmark. Our analysis illustrates that SMACv2 addresses the discovered deficiencies of SMAC and can help benchmark the next generation of MARL methods. Videos of training are available at https://sites.google.com/view/smacv2
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在过去的十年中,多智能经纪人强化学习(Marl)已经有了重大进展,但仍存在许多挑战,例如高样本复杂性和慢趋同稳定的政策,在广泛的部署之前需要克服,这是可能的。然而,在实践中,许多现实世界的环境已经部署了用于生成策略的次优或启发式方法。一个有趣的问题是如何最好地使用这些方法作为顾问,以帮助改善多代理领域的加强学习。在本文中,我们提供了一个原则的框架,用于将动作建议纳入多代理设置中的在线次优顾问。我们描述了在非传记通用随机游戏环境中提供多种智能强化代理(海军上将)的问题,并提出了两种新的基于Q学习的算法:海军上将决策(海军DM)和海军上将 - 顾问评估(Admiral-AE) ,这使我们能够通过适当地纳入顾问(Admiral-DM)的建议来改善学习,并评估顾问(Admiral-AE)的有效性。我们从理论上分析了算法,并在一般加上随机游戏中提供了关于他们学习的定点保证。此外,广泛的实验说明了这些算法:可以在各种环境中使用,具有对其他相关基线的有利相比的性能,可以扩展到大状态行动空间,并且对来自顾问的不良建议具有稳健性。
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在本文中,我们提出了一个名为“星际争霸多代理挑战”的新颖基准,代理商学习执行多阶段任务并使用没有精确奖励功能的环境因素。以前的挑战(SMAC)被认为是多名强化学习的标准基准,主要涉及确保所有代理人仅通过具有明显的奖励功能的精细操纵而合作消除接近对手。另一方面,这一挑战对MARL算法的探索能力有效地学习隐式多阶段任务和环境因素以及微控制感兴趣。这项研究涵盖了进攻和防御性场景。在进攻情况下,代理商必须学会先寻找对手,然后消除他们。防御性场景要求代理使用地形特征。例如,代理需要将自己定位在保护结构后面,以使敌人更难攻击。我们研究了SMAC+下的MARL算法,并观察到最近的方法在与以前的挑战类似,但在进攻情况下表现不佳。此外,我们观察到,增强的探索方法对性能有积极影响,但无法完全解决所有情况。这项研究提出了未来研究的新方向。
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Many real-world problems, such as network packet routing and the coordination of autonomous vehicles, are naturally modelled as cooperative multi-agent systems. There is a great need for new reinforcement learning methods that can efficiently learn decentralised policies for such systems. To this end, we propose a new multi-agent actor-critic method called counterfactual multi-agent (COMA) policy gradients. COMA uses a centralised critic to estimate the Q-function and decentralised actors to optimise the agents' policies. In addition, to address the challenges of multi-agent credit assignment, it uses a counterfactual baseline that marginalises out a single agent's action, while keeping the other agents' actions fixed. COMA also uses a critic representation that allows the counterfactual baseline to be computed efficiently in a single forward pass. We evaluate COMA in the testbed of StarCraft unit micromanagement, using a decentralised variant with significant partial observability. COMA significantly improves average performance over other multi-agent actorcritic methods in this setting, and the best performing agents are competitive with state-of-the-art centralised controllers that get access to the full state.
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多智能体增强学习(Marl)为涉及多个交互代理的问题提供了一个框架。尽管与单智能案例明显相似,但多种子体问题通常仍然努力培训和分析。在这项工作中,我们提出了一种新的策略演员 - 批评算法,它将V-Trace扩展到Marl设置。我们的算法的关键优势是它在多工人设置中的高可扩展性。为此,MA-Trace利用重要的采样作为脱策校正方法,这允许分配计算,没有影响培训质量。此外,我们的算法理论上是接地 - 我们证明了一种保证收敛的定期定理。我们在星际争霸多智能课程中广泛评估算法,是多智能代理算法的标准基准。Ma-Trace在所有任务中实现了高性能,并超过了最先进的结果。
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通过比较它们在大型任务套件上的相对性能来主要评估深度加强学习(RL)算法。大多数已发布的Deep RL基准的结果比较了总体性能的积分估计,如任务的平均值和中位数分数,忽略了使用有限次训练运行所暗示的统计不确定性。从街机学习环境(ALE)开始,转向计算苛刻的基准导致只评估每项任务的少量运行的实践,加剧了点估计中的统计不确定性。在本文中,我们认为,在少数运行深处的RL政权中的可靠评估不能忽视结果中的不确定性,而无需冒着现场降低进展的风险。我们使用对Atari 100k基准测试的案例研究来说明这一点,在那里我们在单独从点估计中汲取的结论之间发现了大量差异与更全面的统计分析。旨在提高现场对报告的据报道的诸如少数经营的业绩的信心,我们倡导报告总绩效的间隔估计,并提出性能概况来解释结果的可变性,以及现在更强大和高效的总数的绩效作为狭隘的平均分数,在结果中取得小的不确定性。使用此类统计工具,我们在包括ALE,Procgen和DeepMind控制套件的其他广泛使用的RL基准测试中仔细审查了现有算法的性能评估,再次在先前的比较中显示差异。我们的调查结果呼吁改变我们如何评估深度RL的性能,我们提出了更严格的评估方法,伴随着开源库的最新,以防止不可靠的结果停滞不前。
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Cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) has achieved significant results, most notably by leveraging the representation-learning abilities of deep neural networks. However, large centralized approaches quickly become infeasible as the number of agents scale, and fully decentralized approaches can miss important opportunities for information sharing and coordination. Furthermore, not all agents are equal -- in some cases, individual agents may not even have the ability to send communication to other agents or explicitly model other agents. This paper considers the case where there is a single, powerful, \emph{central agent} that can observe the entire observation space, and there are multiple, low-powered \emph{local agents} that can only receive local observations and are not able to communicate with each other. The central agent's job is to learn what message needs to be sent to different local agents based on the global observations, not by centrally solving the entire problem and sending action commands, but by determining what additional information an individual agent should receive so that it can make a better decision. In this work we present our MARL algorithm \algo, describe where it would be most applicable, and implement it in the cooperative navigation and multi-agent walker domains. Empirical results show that 1) learned communication does indeed improve system performance, 2) results generalize to heterogeneous local agents, and 3) results generalize to different reward structures.
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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政策梯度方法在多智能体增强学习中变得流行,但由于存在环境随机性和探索代理(即非公平性​​),它们遭受了高度的差异,这可能因信用分配难度而受到困扰。结果,需要一种方法,该方法不仅能够有效地解决上述两个问题,而且需要足够强大地解决各种任务。为此,我们提出了一种新的多代理政策梯度方法,称为强大的本地优势(ROLA)演员 - 评论家。 Rola允许每个代理人将个人动作值函数作为当地评论家,以及通过基于集中评论家的新型集中培训方法来改善环境不良。通过使用此本地批评,每个代理都计算基准,以减少对其策略梯度估计的差异,这导致含有其他代理的预期优势动作值,这些选项可以隐式提高信用分配。我们在各种基准测试中评估ROLA,并在许多最先进的多代理政策梯度算法上显示其鲁棒性和有效性。
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In recent years, significant progress has been made in solving challenging problems across various domains using deep reinforcement learning (RL). Reproducing existing work and accurately judging the improvements offered by novel methods is vital to sustaining this progress. Unfortunately, reproducing results for state-of-the-art deep RL methods is seldom straightforward. In particular, non-determinism in standard benchmark environments, combined with variance intrinsic to the methods, can make reported results tough to interpret. Without significance metrics and tighter standardization of experimental reporting, it is difficult to determine whether improvements over the prior state-of-the-art are meaningful. In this paper, we investigate challenges posed by reproducibility, proper experimental techniques, and reporting procedures. We illustrate the variability in reported metrics and results when comparing against common baselines and suggest guidelines to make future results in deep RL more reproducible. We aim to spur discussion about how to ensure continued progress in the field by minimizing wasted effort stemming from results that are non-reproducible and easily misinterpreted.
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最先进的多机构增强学习(MARL)方法为各种复杂问题提供了有希望的解决方案。然而,这些方法都假定代理执行同步的原始操作执行,因此它们不能真正可扩展到长期胜利的真实世界多代理/机器人任务,这些任务固有地要求代理/机器人以异步的理由,涉及有关高级动作选择的理由。不同的时间。宏观行动分散的部分可观察到的马尔可夫决策过程(MACDEC-POMDP)是在完全合作的多代理任务中不确定的异步决策的一般形式化。在本论文中,我们首先提出了MacDec-Pomdps的一组基于价值的RL方法,其中允许代理在三个范式中使用宏观成果功能执行异步学习和决策:分散学习和控制,集中学习,集中学习和控制,以及分散执行的集中培训(CTDE)。在上述工作的基础上,我们在三个训练范式下制定了一组基于宏观行动的策略梯度算法,在该训练范式下,允许代理以异步方式直接优化其参数化策略。我们在模拟和真实的机器人中评估了我们的方法。经验结果证明了我们在大型多代理问题中的方法的优势,并验证了我们算法在学习具有宏观actions的高质量和异步溶液方面的有效性。
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集中式培训(CT)是许多受欢迎的多代理增强学习(MARL)方法的基础,因为它允许代理商快速学习高性能的政策。但是,CT依靠代理人从对特定州对其他代理商的行为的一次性观察中学习。由于MARL代理商在培训期间探索和更新其政策,因此这些观察结果通常会为其他代理商的行为和预期的给定行动回报提供不良的预测。因此,CT方法患有较高的差异和容易出错的估计,从而损害了学习。除非施加了强大的分解限制,否则CT方法还遭受了复杂性爆炸性增长(例如,QMIX的单调奖励函数)。我们通过一个新的半居中的MAL框架来应对这些挑战,该框架执行政策安装的培训和分散的执行。我们的方法是嵌入式增强学习算法(PERLA),是参与者批评的MARL算法的增强工具,它利用了一种新型参数共享协议和策略嵌入方法来维持对其他代理商的行为的估计。我们的理论证明,佩拉大大降低了价值估计的差异。与各种CT方法不同,Perla无缝地采用MARL算法,它可以轻松地与代理数量缩放,而无需限制性分解假设。我们展示了Perla在基准环境中的出色经验表现和有效的缩放,包括Starcraft Micromagement II和Multi-Agent Mujoco
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深入学习的强化学习(RL)的结合导致了一系列令人印象深刻的壮举,许多相信(深)RL提供了一般能力的代理。然而,RL代理商的成功往往对培训过程中的设计选择非常敏感,这可能需要繁琐和易于易于的手动调整。这使得利用RL对新问题充满挑战,同时也限制了其全部潜力。在许多其他机器学习领域,AutomL已经示出了可以自动化这样的设计选择,并且在应用于RL时也会产生有希望的初始结果。然而,自动化强化学习(AutorL)不仅涉及Automl的标准应用,而且还包括RL独特的额外挑战,其自然地产生了不同的方法。因此,Autorl已成为RL中的一个重要研究领域,提供来自RNA设计的各种应用中的承诺,以便玩游戏等游戏。鉴于RL中考虑的方法和环境的多样性,在不同的子领域进行了大部分研究,从Meta学习到进化。在这项调查中,我们寻求统一自动的领域,我们提供常见的分类法,详细讨论每个区域并对研究人员来说是一个兴趣的开放问题。
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独立的强化学习算法没有理论保证,用于在多代理设置中找到最佳策略。然而,在实践中,先前的作品报告了在某些域中的独立算法和其他方面的良好性能。此外,文献中缺乏对独立算法的优势和弱点的全面研究。在本文中,我们对四个Pettingzoo环境进行了独立算法的性能的实证比较,这些环境跨越了三种主要类别的多助理环境,即合作,竞争和混合。我们表明,在完全可观察的环境中,独立的算法可以在协作和竞争环境中与多代理算法进行同步。对于混合环境,我们表明通过独立算法培训的代理商学会单独执行,但未能学会与盟友合作并与敌人竞争。我们还表明,添加重复性提高了合作部分可观察环境中独立算法的学习。
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A long-standing challenge in artificial intelligence is lifelong learning. In lifelong learning, many tasks are presented in sequence and learners must efficiently transfer knowledge between tasks while avoiding catastrophic forgetting over long lifetimes. On these problems, policy reuse and other multi-policy reinforcement learning techniques can learn many tasks. However, they can generate many temporary or permanent policies, resulting in memory issues. Consequently, there is a need for lifetime-scalable methods that continually refine a policy library of a pre-defined size. This paper presents a first approach to lifetime-scalable policy reuse. To pre-select the number of policies, a notion of task capacity, the maximal number of tasks that a policy can accurately solve, is proposed. To evaluate lifetime policy reuse using this method, two state-of-the-art single-actor base-learners are compared: 1) a value-based reinforcement learner, Deep Q-Network (DQN) or Deep Recurrent Q-Network (DRQN); and 2) an actor-critic reinforcement learner, Proximal Policy Optimisation (PPO) with or without Long Short-Term Memory layer. By selecting the number of policies based on task capacity, D(R)QN achieves near-optimal performance with 6 policies in a 27-task MDP domain and 9 policies in an 18-task POMDP domain; with fewer policies, catastrophic forgetting and negative transfer are observed. Due to slow, monotonic improvement, PPO requires fewer policies, 1 policy for the 27-task domain and 4 policies for the 18-task domain, but it learns the tasks with lower accuracy than D(R)QN. These findings validate lifetime-scalable policy reuse and suggest using D(R)QN for larger and PPO for smaller library sizes.
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Reinforcement learning in multi-agent scenarios is important for real-world applications but presents challenges beyond those seen in singleagent settings. We present an actor-critic algorithm that trains decentralized policies in multiagent settings, using centrally computed critics that share an attention mechanism which selects relevant information for each agent at every timestep. This attention mechanism enables more effective and scalable learning in complex multiagent environments, when compared to recent approaches. Our approach is applicable not only to cooperative settings with shared rewards, but also individualized reward settings, including adversarial settings, as well as settings that do not provide global states, and it makes no assumptions about the action spaces of the agents. As such, it is flexible enough to be applied to most multi-agent learning problems.
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