在这项工作中，我们使用变分推论来量化无线电星系分类的深度学习模型预测的不确定性程度。我们表明，当标记无线电星系时，个体测试样本的模型后差水平与人类不确定性相关。我们探讨了各种不同重量前沿的模型性能和不确定性校准，并表明稀疏事先产生更良好的校准不确定性估计。使用单个重量的后部分布，我们表明我们可以通过从最低信噪比（SNR）中除去权重来修剪30％的完全连接的层权重，而无需显着损失性能。我们证明，可以使用基于Fisher信息的排名来实现更大程度的修剪，但我们注意到两种修剪方法都会影响Failaroff-Riley I型和II型无线电星系的不确定性校准。最后，我们表明，与此领域的其他工作相比，我们经历了冷的后效，因此后部必须缩小后加权以实现良好的预测性能。我们检查是否调整成本函数以适应模型拼盘可以弥补此效果，但发现它不会产生显着差异。我们还研究了原则数据增强的效果，并发现这改善了基线，而且还没有弥补观察到的效果。我们将其解释为寒冷的后效，因为我们的培训样本过于有效的策划导致可能性拼盘，并将其提高到未来无线电银行分类的潜在问题。

在这项工作中，我们使用变分推论在无线电星系分类的模型预测中量化的认知性不确定性，并表明在标记无线电星系时，各个测试样本的模型后差水平与人类不确定性相关。我们探讨了各种不同重量前沿的模型性能和不确定性校准，并表明稀疏事先产生更良好的校准不确定性估计。使用各个权重的后部分布，我们表明信噪比（SNR）排名允许将完全连接的层灌浆到30 \％的水平，而无需显着损失性能，并且这种修剪增加了预测性不确定性在模型中。最后，我们表明，与此领域的其他工作一样，我们经历了冷的后效。我们检查是否在我们的模型中调整成本函数以适应模型拼盘可以弥补这种效果，但发现它没有显着差异。我们还研究了原则数据增强的效果，并发现它改善了基线，但不会完全弥补观察到的效果。我们将其解释为寒冷的后效，因为我们的培训样本过于有效的策划导致可能性拼盘，并将其提高到未来无线电银行分类的潜在问题。

现代深度学习方法构成了令人难以置信的强大工具，以解决无数的挑战问题。然而，由于深度学习方法作为黑匣子运作，因此与其预测相关的不确定性往往是挑战量化。贝叶斯统计数据提供了一种形式主义来理解和量化与深度神经网络预测相关的不确定性。本教程概述了相关文献和完整的工具集，用于设计，实施，列车，使用和评估贝叶斯神经网络，即使用贝叶斯方法培训的随机人工神经网络。

尽管基于卷积神经网络（CNN）的组织病理学图像的分类模型，但量化其不确定性是不可行的。此外，当数据偏置时，CNN可以遭受过度装备。我们展示贝叶斯-CNN可以通过自动规范并通过量化不确定性来克服这些限制。我们开发了一种新颖的技术，利用贝叶斯-CNN提供的不确定性，这显着提高了大部分测试数据的性能（约为77％的测试数据的准确性提高了约6％）。此外，我们通过非线性维度降低技术将数据投射到低尺寸空间来提供对不确定性的新颖解释。该维度降低能够通过可视化解释测试数据，并在低维特征空间中揭示数据的结构。我们表明，贝叶斯-CNN可以通过分别将假阴性和假阳性降低11％和7.7％的最先进的转移学习CNN（TL-CNN）来表现出远得更好。它具有仅为186万个参数的这种性能，而TL-CNN的参数仅为134.33亿。此外，我们通过引入随机自适应激活功能来修改贝叶斯-CNN。修改后的贝叶斯-CNN在所有性能指标上的贝叶斯-CNN略胜一筹，并显着降低了误报和误报的数量（两者减少了3％）。我们还表明，通过执行McNemar的统计显着性测试，这些结果具有统计学意义。这项工作显示了贝叶斯-CNN对现有技术的优势，解释并利用组织病理学图像的不确定性。它应该在各种医学图像分类中找到应用程序。

We introduce a new, efficient, principled and backpropagation-compatible algorithm for learning a probability distribution on the weights of a neural network, called Bayes by Backprop. It regularises the weights by minimising a compression cost, known as the variational free energy or the expected lower bound on the marginal likelihood. We show that this principled kind of regularisation yields comparable performance to dropout on MNIST classification. We then demonstrate how the learnt uncertainty in the weights can be used to improve generalisation in non-linear regression problems, and how this weight uncertainty can be used to drive the exploration-exploitation trade-off in reinforcement learning.

We introduce a new, efficient, principled and backpropagation-compatible algorithm for learning a probability distribution on the weights of a neural network, called Bayes by Backprop. It regularises the weights by minimising a compression cost, known as the variational free energy or the expected lower bound on the marginal likelihood. We show that this principled kind of regularisation yields comparable performance to dropout on MNIST classification. We then demonstrate how the learnt uncertainty in the weights can be used to improve generalisation in non-linear regression problems, and how this weight uncertainty can be used to drive the exploration-exploitation trade-off in reinforcement learning.

Kullback-Leibler（KL）差异广泛用于贝叶斯神经网络（BNNS）的变异推理。然而，KL差异具有无限性和不对称性等局限性。我们检查了更通用，有限和对称的詹森 - 香农（JS）差异。我们根据几何JS差异为BNN制定新的损失函数，并表明基于KL差异的常规损失函数是其特殊情况。我们以封闭形式的高斯先验评估拟议损失函数的差异部分。对于任何其他一般的先验，都可以使用蒙特卡洛近似值。我们提供了实施这两种情况的算法。我们证明所提出的损失函数提供了一个可以调整的附加参数，以控制正则化程度。我们得出了所提出的损失函数在高斯先验和后代的基于KL差异的损失函数更好的条件。我们证明了基于嘈杂的CIFAR数据集和有偏见的组织病理学数据集的最新基于KL差异的BNN的性能提高。

量化监督学习模型的不确定性在制定更可靠的预测方面发挥着重要作用。认知不确定性，通常是由于对模型的知识不足，可以通过收集更多数据或精炼学习模型来减少。在过去的几年里，学者提出了许多认识的不确定性处理技术，这些技术可以大致分为两类，即贝叶斯和集合。本文对过去五年来提供了对监督学习的认识性不确定性学习技术的全面综述。因此，我们首先，将认知不确定性分解为偏见和方差术语。然后，介绍了认知不确定性学习技术以及其代表模型的分层分类。此外，提出了几种应用，例如计算机视觉（CV）和自然语言处理（NLP），然后讨论研究差距和可能的未来研究方向。

我们研究了回归中神经网络（NNS）的模型不确定性的方法。为了隔离模型不确定性的效果，我们专注于稀缺训练数据的无噪声环境。我们介绍了关于任何方法都应满足的模型不确定性的五个重要的逃亡者。但是，我们发现，建立的基准通常无法可靠地捕获其中一些逃避者，即使是贝叶斯理论要求的基准。为了解决这个问题，我们介绍了一种新方法来捕获NNS的模型不确定性，我们称之为基于神经优化的模型不确定性（NOMU）。 NOMU的主要思想是设计一个由两个连接的子NN组成的网络体系结构，一个用于模型预测，一个用于模型不确定性，并使用精心设计的损耗函数进行训练。重要的是，我们的设计执行NOMU满足我们的五个Desiderata。由于其模块化体系结构，NOMU可以为任何给定（先前训练）NN提供模型不确定性，如果访问其培训数据。我们在各种回归任务和无嘈杂的贝叶斯优化（BO）中评估NOMU，并具有昂贵的评估。在回归中，NOMU至少和最先进的方法。在BO中，Nomu甚至胜过所有考虑的基准。

Objective: Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have demonstrated promise in automated cardiac magnetic resonance image segmentation. However, when using CNNs in a large real-world dataset, it is important to quantify segmentation uncertainty and identify segmentations which could be problematic. In this work, we performed a systematic study of Bayesian and non-Bayesian methods for estimating uncertainty in segmentation neural networks. Methods: We evaluated Bayes by Backprop, Monte Carlo Dropout, Deep Ensembles, and Stochastic Segmentation Networks in terms of segmentation accuracy, probability calibration, uncertainty on out-of-distribution images, and segmentation quality control. Results: We observed that Deep Ensembles outperformed the other methods except for images with heavy noise and blurring distortions. We showed that Bayes by Backprop is more robust to noise distortions while Stochastic Segmentation Networks are more resistant to blurring distortions. For segmentation quality control, we showed that segmentation uncertainty is correlated with segmentation accuracy for all the methods. With the incorporation of uncertainty estimates, we were able to reduce the percentage of poor segmentation to 5% by flagging 31--48% of the most uncertain segmentations for manual review, substantially lower than random review without using neural network uncertainty (reviewing 75--78% of all images). Conclusion: This work provides a comprehensive evaluation of uncertainty estimation methods and showed that Deep Ensembles outperformed other methods in most cases. Significance: Neural network uncertainty measures can help identify potentially inaccurate segmentations and alert users for manual review.

We propose SWA-Gaussian (SWAG), a simple, scalable, and general purpose approach for uncertainty representation and calibration in deep learning. Stochastic Weight Averaging (SWA), which computes the first moment of stochastic gradient descent (SGD) iterates with a modified learning rate schedule, has recently been shown to improve generalization in deep learning. With SWAG, we fit a Gaussian using the SWA solution as the first moment and a low rank plus diagonal covariance also derived from the SGD iterates, forming an approximate posterior distribution over neural network weights; we then sample from this Gaussian distribution to perform Bayesian model averaging. We empirically find that SWAG approximates the shape of the true posterior, in accordance with results describing the stationary distribution of SGD iterates. Moreover, we demonstrate that SWAG performs well on a wide variety of tasks, including out of sample detection, calibration, and transfer learning, in comparison to many popular alternatives including MC dropout, KFAC Laplace, SGLD, and temperature scaling.

The notion of uncertainty is of major importance in machine learning and constitutes a key element of machine learning methodology. In line with the statistical tradition, uncertainty has long been perceived as almost synonymous with standard probability and probabilistic predictions. Yet, due to the steadily increasing relevance of machine learning for practical applications and related issues such as safety requirements, new problems and challenges have recently been identified by machine learning scholars, and these problems may call for new methodological developments. In particular, this includes the importance of distinguishing between (at least) two different types of uncertainty, often referred to as aleatoric and epistemic. In this paper, we provide an introduction to the topic of uncertainty in machine learning as well as an overview of attempts so far at handling uncertainty in general and formalizing this distinction in particular.

对于许多工程应用，例如实时模拟或控制，潜在的非线性问题的传统解决方案技术通常是过于计算的。在这项工作中，我们提出了一种高效的深度学习代理框架，能够预测负载下的超弹性体的响应。代理模型采用特殊的卷积神经网络架构，所谓的U-Net的形式，其具有用有限元方法获得的力 - 位移数据训练。我们提出了框架的确定性和概率版本，并研究了三个基准问题。特别是，我们检查最大可能性和变分贝叶斯推论配方的能力，以评估解决方案的置信区间。

There are two major types of uncertainty one can model. Aleatoric uncertainty captures noise inherent in the observations. On the other hand, epistemic uncertainty accounts for uncertainty in the model -uncertainty which can be explained away given enough data. Traditionally it has been difficult to model epistemic uncertainty in computer vision, but with new Bayesian deep learning tools this is now possible. We study the benefits of modeling epistemic vs. aleatoric uncertainty in Bayesian deep learning models for vision tasks. For this we present a Bayesian deep learning framework combining input-dependent aleatoric uncertainty together with epistemic uncertainty. We study models under the framework with per-pixel semantic segmentation and depth regression tasks. Further, our explicit uncertainty formulation leads to new loss functions for these tasks, which can be interpreted as learned attenuation. This makes the loss more robust to noisy data, also giving new state-of-the-art results on segmentation and depth regression benchmarks.

我们通过Pac-Bayes概括界的镜头研究冷后效应。我们认为，在非反应环境中，当训练样本的数量相对较小时，应考虑到冷后效应的讨论，即大概贝叶斯推理并不能容易地提供对样本外数据的性能的保证。取而代之的是，通过泛化结合更好地描述了样本外误差。在这种情况下，我们探讨了各种推理与PAC-Bayes目标的ELBO目标之间的联系。我们注意到，虽然Elbo和Pac-Bayes目标相似，但后一个目标自然包含温度参数$ \ lambda $，不限于$ \ lambda = 1 $。对于回归和分类任务，在各向同性拉普拉斯与后部的近似值的情况下，我们展示了这种对温度参数的PAC-bayesian解释如何捕获冷后效应。

在过去几十年中，已经提出了各种方法，用于估计回归设置中的预测间隔，包括贝叶斯方法，集合方法，直接间隔估计方法和保形预测方法。重要问题是这些方法的校准：生成的预测间隔应该具有预定义的覆盖水平，而不会过于保守。在这项工作中，我们从概念和实验的角度审查上述四类方法。结果来自各个域的基准数据集突出显示从一个数据集中的性能的大波动。这些观察可能归因于违反某些类别的某些方法所固有的某些假设。我们说明了如何将共形预测用作提供不具有校准步骤的方法的方法的一般校准程序。

We introduce ensembles of stochastic neural networks to approximate the Bayesian posterior, combining stochastic methods such as dropout with deep ensembles. The stochastic ensembles are formulated as families of distributions and trained to approximate the Bayesian posterior with variational inference. We implement stochastic ensembles based on Monte Carlo dropout, DropConnect and a novel non-parametric version of dropout and evaluate them on a toy problem and CIFAR image classification. For CIFAR, the stochastic ensembles are quantitatively compared to published Hamiltonian Monte Carlo results for a ResNet-20 architecture. We also test the quality of the posteriors directly against Hamiltonian Monte Carlo simulations in a simplified toy model. Our results show that in a number of settings, stochastic ensembles provide more accurate posterior estimates than regular deep ensembles.

Accurate uncertainty quantification is a major challenge in deep learning, as neural networks can make overconfident errors and assign high confidence predictions to out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs. The most popular approaches to estimate predictive uncertainty in deep learning are methods that combine predictions from multiple neural networks, such as Bayesian neural networks (BNNs) and deep ensembles. However their practicality in real-time, industrial-scale applications are limited due to the high memory and computational cost. Furthermore, ensembles and BNNs do not necessarily fix all the issues with the underlying member networks. In this work, we study principled approaches to improve uncertainty property of a single network, based on a single, deterministic representation. By formalizing the uncertainty quantification as a minimax learning problem, we first identify distance awareness, i.e., the model's ability to quantify the distance of a testing example from the training data, as a necessary condition for a DNN to achieve high-quality (i.e., minimax optimal) uncertainty estimation. We then propose Spectral-normalized Neural Gaussian Process (SNGP), a simple method that improves the distance-awareness ability of modern DNNs with two simple changes: (1) applying spectral normalization to hidden weights to enforce bi-Lipschitz smoothness in representations and (2) replacing the last output layer with a Gaussian process layer. On a suite of vision and language understanding benchmarks, SNGP outperforms other single-model approaches in prediction, calibration and out-of-domain detection. Furthermore, SNGP provides complementary benefits to popular techniques such as deep ensembles and data augmentation, making it a simple and scalable building block for probabilistic deep learning. Code is open-sourced at https://github.com/google/uncertainty-baselines

Network pruning is a promising way to generate light but accurate models and enable their deployment on resource-limited edge devices. However, the current state-of-the-art assumes that the effective sub-network and the other superfluous parameters in the given network share the same distribution, where pruning inevitably involves a distribution truncation operation. They usually eliminate values near zero. While simple, it may not be the most appropriate method, as effective models may naturally have many small values associated with them. Removing near-zero values already embedded in model space may significantly reduce model accuracy. Another line of work has proposed to assign discrete prior over all possible sub-structures that still rely on human-crafted prior hypotheses. Worse still, existing methods use regularized point estimates, namely Hard Pruning, that can not provide error estimations and fail reliability justification for the pruned networks. In this paper, we propose a novel distribution-lossless pruning method, named DLLP, to theoretically find the pruned lottery within Bayesian treatment. Specifically, DLLP remodels the vanilla networks as discrete priors for the latent pruned model and the other redundancy. More importantly, DLLP uses Stein Variational Inference to approach the latent prior and effectively bypasses calculating KL divergence with unknown distribution. Extensive experiments based on small Cifar-10 and large-scaled ImageNet demonstrate that our method can obtain sparser networks with great generalization performance while providing quantified reliability for the pruned model.

人工神经网络无法评估其预测的不确定性是对它们广泛使用的障碍。我们区分了两种类型的可学习不确定性：由于缺乏训练数据和噪声引起的观察不确定性而导致的模型不确定性。贝叶斯神经网络使用坚实的数学基础来学习其预测的模型不确定性。观察不确定性可以通过在这些网络中添加一层并增强其损失功能来计算观察不确定性。我们的贡献是将这些不确定性概念应用于预测过程监控任务中，以训练基于不确定性的模型以预测剩余时间和结果。我们的实验表明，不确定性估计值允许分化更多和不准确的预测，并在回归和分类任务中构建置信区间。即使在运行过程的早期阶段，这些结论仍然是正确的。此外，部署的技术是快速的，并产生了更准确的预测。学习的不确定性可以增加用户对其流程预测系统的信心，促进人类与这些系统之间的更好合作，并通过较小的数据集实现早期的实施。