自动化问题生成是实现英语理解评估个性化的重要方法。最近，基于变压器的预审前的语言模型已经证明了从上下文段落中提出适当问题的能力。通常，使用基于N-Gram的指标或手动定性评估对手动生成的问题的参考组进行评估。在这里，我们专注于完全自动化的多项选择问题生成（MCQG）系统，其中必须从上下文段落中生成问题和可能的答案。应用基于N-Gram的方法对于这种形式的系统来说是一项挑战，因为参考集不太可能捕获所有可能的问题和答案选项。相反，手动评估的尺度较差，对于MCQG系统开发而言是昂贵的。在这项工作中，我们提出了一套绩效标准，以评估产生的多项选择问题的不同方面。这些品质包括：语法正确性，答复性，多样性和复杂性。描述了这些指标中每个指标的初始系统，并对标准的多项选择阅读理解科目进行了单独评估。

为了实现长文档理解的构建和测试模型，我们引入质量，具有中文段的多项选择QA DataSet，具有约5,000个令牌的平均长度，比典型的当前模型更长。与经过段落的事先工作不同，我们的问题是由阅读整个段落的贡献者编写和验证的，而不是依赖摘要或摘录。此外，只有一半的问题是通过在紧缩时间限制下工作的注释器来应答，表明略读和简单的搜索不足以一直表现良好。目前的模型在此任务上表现不佳（55.4％），并且落后于人类性能（93.5％）。

Natural Language Generation (NLG) has improved exponentially in recent years thanks to the development of sequence-to-sequence deep learning technologies such as Transformer-based language models. This advancement has led to more fluent and coherent NLG, leading to improved development in downstream tasks such as abstractive summarization, dialogue generation and data-to-text generation. However, it is also apparent that deep learning based generation is prone to hallucinate unintended text, which degrades the system performance and fails to meet user expectations in many real-world scenarios. To address this issue, many studies have been presented in measuring and mitigating hallucinated texts, but these have never been reviewed in a comprehensive manner before. In this survey, we thus provide a broad overview of the research progress and challenges in the hallucination problem in NLG. The survey is organized into two parts: (1) a general overview of metrics, mitigation methods, and future directions; and (2) an overview of task-specific research progress on hallucinations in the following downstream tasks, namely abstractive summarization, dialogue generation, generative question answering, data-to-text generation, machine translation, and visual-language generation. This survey serves to facilitate collaborative efforts among researchers in tackling the challenge of hallucinated texts in NLG.

Powerful generative models have led to recent progress in question generation (QG). However, it is difficult to measure advances in QG research since there are no standardized resources that allow a uniform comparison among approaches. In this paper, we introduce QG-Bench, a multilingual and multidomain benchmark for QG that unifies existing question answering datasets by converting them to a standard QG setting. It includes general-purpose datasets such as SQuAD for English, datasets from ten domains and two styles, as well as datasets in eight different languages. Using QG-Bench as a reference, we perform an extensive analysis of the capabilities of language models for the task. First, we propose robust QG baselines based on fine-tuning generative language models. Then, we complement automatic evaluation based on standard metrics with an extensive manual evaluation, which in turn sheds light on the difficulty of evaluating QG models. Finally, we analyse both the domain adaptability of these models as well as the effectiveness of multilingual models in languages other than English. QG-Bench is released along with the fine-tuned models presented in the paper https://github.com/asahi417/lm-question-generation, which are also available as a demo https://autoqg.net/.

Multi-hop Machine reading comprehension is a challenging task with aim of answering a question based on disjoint pieces of information across the different passages. The evaluation metrics and datasets are a vital part of multi-hop MRC because it is not possible to train and evaluate models without them, also, the proposed challenges by datasets often are an important motivation for improving the existing models. Due to increasing attention to this field, it is necessary and worth reviewing them in detail. This study aims to present a comprehensive survey on recent advances in multi-hop MRC evaluation metrics and datasets. In this regard, first, the multi-hop MRC problem definition will be presented, then the evaluation metrics based on their multi-hop aspect will be investigated. Also, 15 multi-hop datasets have been reviewed in detail from 2017 to 2022, and a comprehensive analysis has been prepared at the end. Finally, open issues in this field have been discussed.

We introduce a large scale MAchine Reading COmprehension dataset, which we name MS MARCO. The dataset comprises of 1,010,916 anonymized questionssampled from Bing's search query logs-each with a human generated answer and 182,669 completely human rewritten generated answers. In addition, the dataset contains 8,841,823 passages-extracted from 3,563,535 web documents retrieved by Bing-that provide the information necessary for curating the natural language answers. A question in the MS MARCO dataset may have multiple answers or no answers at all. Using this dataset, we propose three different tasks with varying levels of difficulty: (i) predict if a question is answerable given a set of context passages, and extract and synthesize the answer as a human would (ii) generate a well-formed answer (if possible) based on the context passages that can be understood with the question and passage context, and finally (iii) rank a set of retrieved passages given a question. The size of the dataset and the fact that the questions are derived from real user search queries distinguishes MS MARCO from other well-known publicly available datasets for machine reading comprehension and question-answering. We believe that the scale and the real-world nature of this dataset makes it attractive for benchmarking machine reading comprehension and question-answering models.

本文对过去二十年来对自然语言生成（NLG）的研究提供了全面的审查，特别是与数据到文本生成和文本到文本生成深度学习方法有关，以及NLG的新应用技术。该调查旨在（a）给出关于NLG核心任务的最新综合，以及该领域采用的建筑;（b）详细介绍各种NLG任务和数据集，并提请注意NLG评估中的挑战，专注于不同的评估方法及其关系;（c）强调一些未来的强调和相对近期的研究问题，因为NLG和其他人工智能领域的协同作用而增加，例如计算机视觉，文本和计算创造力。

Existing metrics for evaluating the quality of automatically generated questions such as BLEU, ROUGE, BERTScore, and BLEURT compare the reference and predicted questions, providing a high score when there is a considerable lexical overlap or semantic similarity between the candidate and the reference questions. This approach has two major shortcomings. First, we need expensive human-provided reference questions. Second, it penalises valid questions that may not have high lexical or semantic similarity to the reference questions. In this paper, we propose a new metric, RQUGE, based on the answerability of the candidate question given the context. The metric consists of a question-answering and a span scorer module, in which we use pre-trained models from the existing literature, and therefore, our metric can be used without further training. We show that RQUGE has a higher correlation with human judgment without relying on the reference question. RQUGE is shown to be significantly more robust to several adversarial corruptions. Additionally, we illustrate that we can significantly improve the performance of QA models on out-of-domain datasets by fine-tuning on the synthetic data generated by a question generation model and re-ranked by RQUGE.

We present RACE, a new dataset for benchmark evaluation of methods in the reading comprehension task. Collected from the English exams for middle and high school Chinese students in the age range between 12 to 18, RACE consists of near 28,000 passages and near 100,000 questions generated by human experts (English instructors), and covers a variety of topics which are carefully designed for evaluating the students' ability in understanding and reasoning. In particular, the proportion of questions that requires reasoning is much larger in RACE than that in other benchmark datasets for reading comprehension, and there is a significant gap between the performance of the state-of-the-art models (43%) and the ceiling human performance (95%). We hope this new dataset can serve as a valuable resource for research and evaluation in machine comprehension. The dataset is freely available at http://www.cs.cmu.edu/ ˜glai1/data/race/ and the code is available at https://github.com/ qizhex/RACE_AR_baselines

大型语言模型在各种任务上显示出令人印象深刻的几次结果。但是，当知识是此类结果的关键时，就像问题回答和事实检查之类的任务一样，似乎需要存储知识的大量参数计数。众所周知，检索增强模型可以在不需要多个参数的情况下在知识密集的任务上表现出色，但是目前尚不清楚它们是否在几个弹药设置中工作。在这项工作中，我们介绍了地图集，这是一个经过精心设计和预先训练的增强语言模型，能够通过很少的培训示例学习知识密集型任务。我们对包括MMLU，苏格兰短裙和归类等各种任务进行评估，并研究文档索引内容的影响，表明它可以很容易地进行更新。值得注意的是，在自然问题上仅使用64个示例在自然问题上达到超过42 \％的准确性，尽管参数少了50倍，但比540B参数模型的表现优于540b参数模型。

最近已被证明大型语言模型在各种任务集中获得合理的零射普通化（Brown等，2020）。它已经假设这是语言模型的隐式多任务学习的结果，在语言模型中的预押（Radford等，2019）。可以通过明确的多任务学习直接引起零拍常规化？为了以缩放测试这个问题，我们开发一个系统，以便轻松地将任何自然语言任务映射到人类可读的提示表单中。我们转换一组大量的监督数据集，每个数据集都有多个提示，具有不同的措辞。这些提示的数据集允许基准测试模型执行完全看不见的任务的能力。我们介绍了一个普拉克尔编码器 - 解码器模型（Raffel等，2020; Lester等，2021），覆盖各种任务。该模型在多个标准数据集中达到强大的零点性能，通常优于其尺寸的型号超过16倍。此外，我们的方法对来自Big-替补基准测试的任务子集具有强烈性能，优于其尺寸的6倍。所有提示和培训的型号都可以在https://github.com/ bigscience-workshop / protectsource / httpsource / https：//huggingface.co/bigscience/t0pp。

As large language models (LLMs) grow larger and more sophisticated, assessing their "reasoning" capabilities in natural language grows more challenging. Recent question answering (QA) benchmarks that attempt to assess reasoning are often limited by a narrow scope of covered situations and subject matters. We introduce WikiWhy, a QA dataset built around a novel auxiliary task: explaining why an answer is true in natural language. WikiWhy contains over 9,000 "why" question-answer-rationale triples, grounded on Wikipedia facts across a diverse set of topics. Each rationale is a set of supporting statements connecting the question to the answer. WikiWhy serves as a benchmark for the reasoning capabilities of LLMs because it demands rigorous explicit rationales for each answer to demonstrate the acquisition of implicit commonsense knowledge, which is unlikely to be easily memorized. GPT-3 baselines achieve only 38.7% human-evaluated correctness in the end-to-end answer & explain condition, leaving significant room for future improvements.

Controllable Text Generation (CTG) is emerging area in the field of natural language generation (NLG). It is regarded as crucial for the development of advanced text generation technologies that are more natural and better meet the specific constraints in practical applications. In recent years, methods using large-scale pre-trained language models (PLMs), in particular the widely used transformer-based PLMs, have become a new paradigm of NLG, allowing generation of more diverse and fluent text. However, due to the lower level of interpretability of deep neural networks, the controllability of these methods need to be guaranteed. To this end, controllable text generation using transformer-based PLMs has become a rapidly growing yet challenging new research hotspot. A diverse range of approaches have emerged in the recent 3-4 years, targeting different CTG tasks which may require different types of controlled constraints. In this paper, we present a systematic critical review on the common tasks, main approaches and evaluation methods in this area. Finally, we discuss the challenges that the field is facing, and put forward various promising future directions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first survey paper to summarize CTG techniques from the perspective of PLMs. We hope it can help researchers in related fields to quickly track the academic frontier, providing them with a landscape of the area and a roadmap for future research.

深度神经语言模型的最新进展与大规模数据集的能力相结合，加速了自然语言生成系统的发展，这些系统在多种任务和应用程序上下文中产生流利和连贯的文本（在各种成功程度上）。但是，为所需的用户控制这些模型的输出仍然是一个开放的挑战。这不仅对于自定义生成语言的内容和样式至关重要，而且对于他们在现实世界中的安全可靠部署至关重要。我们提出了一项关于受约束神经语言生成的新兴主题的广泛调查，在该主题中，我们通过区分条件和约束（后者是在输出文本上而不是输入的可检验条件），正式定义和分类自然语言生成问题，目前是可检验的）约束文本生成任务，并查看受限文本生成的现有方法和评估指标。我们的目的是强调这个新兴领域的最新进展和趋势，以告知最有希望的方向和局限性，以推动受约束神经语言生成研究的最新作品。

预训练的语言模型（PTLM）已显示出在自然语言任务上表现良好。许多先前的作品都以通过知识图（KGS）标记的关系链接的实体的形式利用结构性常识来协助PTLM。检索方法使用kg作为单独的静态模块，该模块限制了覆盖范围，因为kgs包含有限的知识。生成方法训练PTLMS kg三倍以提高获得知识的规模。但是，对符号KG实体的培训限制了其在涉及自然语言文本的任务中的适用性，在这些任务中，它们忽略了整体上下文。为了减轻这种情况，我们提出了一个以句子为条件的常识性上下文化器（COSE-CO）作为输入，以使其在生成与输入文本的整体上下文相关的任务中通常可用。为了训练Cose-Co，我们提出了一个新的数据集，其中包括句子和常识知识对。 COSE-CO推断出的知识是多种多样的，并且包含了基础KG中不存在的新实体。我们增强了在多选质量质量检查和开放式常识性推理任务中产生的知识，从而改善了CSQA，ARC，QASC和OBQA数据集的当前最佳方法。我们还展示了其在改善释义生成任务的基线模型方面的适用性。

We demonstrate that scaling up language models greatly improves task-agnostic, few-shot performance, sometimes even becoming competitive with prior state-ofthe-art fine-tuning approaches. Specifically, we train GPT-3, an autoregressive language model with 175 billion parameters, 10x more than any previous nonsparse language model, and test its performance in the few-shot setting. For all tasks, GPT-3 is applied without any gradient updates or fine-tuning, with tasks and few-shot demonstrations specified purely via text interaction with the model. GPT-3 achieves strong performance on many NLP datasets, including translation, question-answering, and cloze tasks. We also identify some datasets where GPT-3's few-shot learning still struggles, as well as some datasets where GPT-3 faces methodological issues related to training on large web corpora.

过去十年互联网上可用的信息和信息量增加。该数字化导致自动应答系统需要从冗余和过渡知识源中提取富有成效的信息。这些系统旨在利用自然语言理解（NLU）从此巨型知识源到用户查询中最突出的答案，从而取决于问题答案（QA）字段。问题答案涉及但不限于用户问题映射的步骤，以获取相关查询，检索相关信息，从检索到的信息等找到最佳合适的答案等。当前对深度学习模型的当前改进估计所有这些任务的令人信服的性能改进。在本综述工作中，根据问题的类型，答案类型，证据答案来源和建模方法进行分析QA场的研究方向。此细节随后是自动问题生成，相似性检测和语言的低资源可用性等领域的开放挑战。最后，提出了对可用数据集和评估措施的调查。

传达相关和忠实信息的能力对于有条件生成的许多任务至关重要，但对于神经SEQ-seq seq模型仍然难以捉摸，这些模型的输出通常显示出幻觉，并且无法正确涵盖重要细节。在这项工作中，我们主张规划作为有用的中间表示，以使有条件的一代减少不透明和扎根。我们的作品提出了将文本计划作为一系列提问（QA）对的新概念化。我们用QA蓝图作为内容选择（即〜说什么）和计划（即〜按什么顺序）来增强现有数据集（例如，用于摘要）。我们通过利用最先进的问题生成技术并将输入输出对自动获取蓝图，并将其转换为输入 - 蓝图输出输出元组。我们开发了基于变压器的模型，每个模型都在它们如何将蓝图合并到生成的输出中（例如，作为全局计划或迭代）。跨指标和数据集的评估表明，蓝图模型比不采取计划并允许对生成输出进行更严格控制的替代方案更为事实。

相同上下文的可能后果可能会因我们所指的情况而异。但是，当前在自然语言处理中的研究并不集中于多种可能情况下的常识性推理。本研究通过短篇小说文字提出与候选人答案相同的结尾的多个问题来构成这项任务。我们由此产生的数据集，可能的故事，包括超过1.3k的故事文本超过4.5k的问题。我们发现，即使是目前的强训练性语言模型也很难始终如一地回答问题，这强调了无监督环境中最高的准确性（60.2％）远远落后于人类准确性（92.5％）。通过与现有数据集进行比较，我们观察到数据集中的问题包含答案选项中的最小注释伪像。此外，我们的数据集还包括需要反事实推理的示例，以及需要读者的反应和虚构信息的示例，这表明我们的数据集可以作为对未来常识性推理的未来研究的挑战性测试。

Multiple choice questions (MCQs) are widely used in digital learning systems, as they allow for automating the assessment process. However, due to the increased digital literacy of students and the advent of social media platforms, MCQ tests are widely shared online, and teachers are continuously challenged to create new questions, which is an expensive and time-consuming task. A particularly sensitive aspect of MCQ creation is to devise relevant distractors, i.e., wrong answers that are not easily identifiable as being wrong. This paper studies how a large existing set of manually created answers and distractors for questions over a variety of domains, subjects, and languages can be leveraged to help teachers in creating new MCQs, by the smart reuse of existing distractors. We built several data-driven models based on context-aware question and distractor representations, and compared them with static feature-based models. The proposed models are evaluated with automated metrics and in a realistic user test with teachers. Both automatic and human evaluations indicate that context-aware models consistently outperform a static feature-based approach. For our best-performing context-aware model, on average 3 distractors out of the 10 shown to teachers were rated as high-quality distractors. We create a performance benchmark, and make it public, to enable comparison between different approaches and to introduce a more standardized evaluation of the task. The benchmark contains a test of 298 educational questions covering multiple subjects & languages and a 77k multilingual pool of distractor vocabulary for future research.