本文提出了一种有效且新颖的多重深度强化学习（MADRL）的方法，用于解决联合虚拟网络功能（VNF）的位置和路由（P＆R），其中同时提供了具有差异性要求的多个服务请求。服务请求的差异要求反映出其延迟和成本敏感的因素。我们首先构建了VNF P＆R问题，以共同减少NP完整的服务延迟和资源消耗成本的加权总和。然后，将关节VNF P＆R问题分解为两个迭代子任务：放置子任务和路由子任务。每个子任务由多个并发并行顺序决策过程组成。通过调用深层确定性策略梯度方法和多代理技术，MADRL-P＆R框架旨在执行两个子任务。提出了新的联合奖励和内部奖励机制，以匹配安置和路由子任务的目标和约束。我们还提出了基于参数迁移的模型重新训练方法来处理不断变化的网络拓扑。通过实验证实，提议的MADRL-P＆R框架在服务成本和延迟方面优于其替代方案，并为个性化服务需求提供了更高的灵活性。基于参数迁移的模型重新训练方法可以在中等网络拓扑变化下有效加速收敛。

传统的多播路由方法在构建多播树时存在一些问题，例如对网络状态信息的访问有限，对网络的动态和复杂变化的适应性不佳以及不灵活的数据转发。为了解决这些缺陷，软件定义网络（SDN）中的最佳多播路由问题是根据多目标优化问题量身定制的，以及基于深Q网络（DQN）深度强化学习（DQN）的智能多播路由算法DRL-M4MR（ DRL）方法旨在构建SDN中的多播树。首先，通过组合SDN的全局视图和控制，将多播树状态矩阵，链路带宽矩阵，链路延迟矩阵和链路延迟损耗矩阵设计为DRL代理的状态空间。其次，代理的动作空间是网络中的所有链接，而动作选择策略旨在将链接添加到四种情况下的当前多播树。第三，单步和最终奖励功能表格旨在指导智能以做出决定以构建最佳多播树。实验结果表明，与现有算法相比，DRL-M4MR的多播树结构可以在训练后获得更好的带宽，延迟和数据包损耗率，并且可以在动态网络环境中做出更智能的多播路由决策。

未来的互联网涉及几种新兴技术，例如5G和5G网络，车辆网络，无人机（UAV）网络和物联网（IOT）。此外，未来的互联网变得异质并分散了许多相关网络实体。每个实体可能需要做出本地决定，以在动态和不确定的网络环境下改善网络性能。最近使用标准学习算法，例如单药强化学习（RL）或深入强化学习（DRL），以使每个网络实体作为代理人通过与未知环境进行互动来自适应地学习最佳决策策略。但是，这种算法未能对网络实体之间的合作或竞争进行建模，而只是将其他实体视为可能导致非平稳性问题的环境的一部分。多机构增强学习（MARL）允许每个网络实体不仅观察环境，还可以观察其他实体的政策来学习其最佳政策。结果，MAL可以显着提高网络实体的学习效率，并且最近已用于解决新兴网络中的各种问题。在本文中，我们因此回顾了MAL在新兴网络中的应用。特别是，我们提供了MARL的教程，以及对MARL在下一代互联网中的应用进行全面调查。特别是，我们首先介绍单代机Agent RL和MARL。然后，我们回顾了MAL在未来互联网中解决新兴问题的许多应用程序。这些问题包括网络访问，传输电源控制，计算卸载，内容缓存，数据包路由，无人机网络的轨迹设计以及网络安全问题。

FOG无线电访问网络（F-RAN）是一项有前途的技术，用户移动设备（MDS）可以将计算任务卸载到附近的FOG接入点（F-APS）。由于F-APS的资源有限，因此设计有效的任务卸载方案很重要。在本文中，通过考虑随时间变化的网络环境，制定了F-RAN中的动态计算卸载和资源分配问题，以最大程度地减少MD的任务执行延迟和能源消耗。为了解决该问题，提出了基于联合的深入强化学习（DRL）算法，其中深层确定性策略梯度（DDPG）算法在每个F-AP中执行计算卸载和资源分配。利用联合学习来培训DDPG代理，以降低培训过程的计算复杂性并保护用户隐私。仿真结果表明，与其他现有策略相比，提议的联合DDPG算法可以更快地实现MDS更快的任务执行延迟和能源消耗。

The deployment flexibility and maneuverability of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) increased their adoption in various applications, such as wildfire tracking, border monitoring, etc. In many critical applications, UAVs capture images and other sensory data and then send the captured data to remote servers for inference and data processing tasks. However, this approach is not always practical in real-time applications due to the connection instability, limited bandwidth, and end-to-end latency. One promising solution is to divide the inference requests into multiple parts (layers or segments), with each part being executed in a different UAV based on the available resources. Furthermore, some applications require the UAVs to traverse certain areas and capture incidents; thus, planning their paths becomes critical particularly, to reduce the latency of making the collaborative inference process. Specifically, planning the UAVs trajectory can reduce the data transmission latency by communicating with devices in the same proximity while mitigating the transmission interference. This work aims to design a model for distributed collaborative inference requests and path planning in a UAV swarm while respecting the resource constraints due to the computational load and memory usage of the inference requests. The model is formulated as an optimization problem and aims to minimize latency. The formulated problem is NP-hard so finding the optimal solution is quite complex; thus, this paper introduces a real-time and dynamic solution for online applications using deep reinforcement learning. We conduct extensive simulations and compare our results to the-state-of-the-art studies demonstrating that our model outperforms the competing models.

事件处理是动态和响应互联网（物联网）的基石。该领域的最近方法基于代表性状态转移（REST）原则，其允许将事件处理任务放置在遵循相同原理的任何设备上。但是，任务应在边缘设备之间正确分布，以确保公平资源利用率和保证无缝执行。本文调查了深入学习的使用，以公平分配任务。提出了一种基于关注的神经网络模型，在不同场景下产生有效的负载平衡解决方案。所提出的模型基于变压器和指针网络架构，并通过Advantage演员批评批评学习算法训练。该模型旨在缩放到事件处理任务的数量和边缘设备的数量，不需要重新调整甚至再刷新。广泛的实验结果表明，拟议的模型在许多关键绩效指标中优于传统的启发式。通用设计和所获得的结果表明，所提出的模型可能适用于几个其他负载平衡问题变化，这使得该提案是由于其可扩展性和效率而在现实世界场景中使用的有吸引力的选择。

在本文中，我们介绍了有关典型乘车共享系统中决策优化问题的强化学习方法的全面，深入的调查。涵盖了有关乘车匹配，车辆重新定位，乘车，路由和动态定价主题的论文。在过去的几年中，大多数文献都出现了，并且要继续解决一些核心挑战：模型复杂性，代理协调和多个杠杆的联合优化。因此，我们还引入了流行的数据集和开放式仿真环境，以促进进一步的研发。随后，我们讨论了有关该重要领域的强化学习研究的许多挑战和机会。

多访问边缘计算（MEC）是一个新兴的计算范式，将云计算扩展到网络边缘，以支持移动设备上的资源密集型应用程序。作为MEC的关键问题，服务迁移需要决定如何迁移用户服务，以维持用户在覆盖范围和容量有限的MEC服务器之间漫游的服务质量。但是，由于动态的MEC环境和用户移动性，找到最佳的迁移策略是棘手的。许多现有研究根据完整的系统级信息做出集中式迁移决策，这是耗时的，并且缺乏理想的可扩展性。为了应对这些挑战，我们提出了一种新颖的学习驱动方法，该方法以用户为中心，可以通过使用不完整的系统级信息来做出有效的在线迁移决策。具体而言，服务迁移问题被建模为可观察到的马尔可夫决策过程（POMDP）。为了解决POMDP，我们设计了一个新的编码网络，该网络结合了长期记忆（LSTM）和一个嵌入式矩阵，以有效提取隐藏信息，并进一步提出了一种定制的非政策型演员 - 批判性算法，以进行有效的训练。基于现实世界的移动性痕迹的广泛实验结果表明，这种新方法始终优于启发式和最先进的学习驱动算法，并且可以在各种MEC场景上取得近乎最佳的结果。

广域网络（WAN）是当今社会的关键基础设施。在过去的几年中，WANS的网络流量和网络应用程序大大增加，对现有网络技术（例如，低延迟和高吞吐量）施加了新的要求。因此，互联网服务提供商（ISP）承受着确保客户服务质量和履行服务水平协议的压力。网络运营商利用交通工程（TE）技术有效地管理网络资源。但是，WAN的流量在时间期间可能会发生巨大变化，并且由于外部因素（例如，链接故障），连通性可能会受到影响。因此，TE解决方案必须能够实时适应动态方案。在本文中，我们提出了基于两阶段优化过程的有效实时TE解决方案。在第一个中，Enero利用深入的强化学习（DRL）通过生成长期的TE策略来优化路由配置。为了在动态网络方案（例如，在链接失败发生时）进行有效的操作，我们将图形神经网络集成到DRL代理中。在第二阶段，Enero使用本地搜索算法来改善DRL的解决方案，而无需将计算开销添加到优化过程中。实验结果表明，Enero能够在4.5秒内平均在现实世界中的动态网络拓扑以100个边缘进行操作。

In many domains such as transportation and logistics, search and rescue, or cooperative surveillance, tasks are pending to be allocated with the consideration of possible execution uncertainties. Existing task coordination algorithms either ignore the stochastic process or suffer from the computational intensity. Taking advantage of the weakly coupled feature of the problem and the opportunity for coordination in advance, we propose a decentralized auction-based coordination strategy using a newly formulated score function which is generated by forming the problem into task-constrained Markov decision processes (MDPs). The proposed method guarantees convergence and at least 50% optimality in the premise of a submodular reward function. Furthermore, for the implementation on large-scale applications, an approximate variant of the proposed method, namely Deep Auction, is also suggested with the use of neural networks, which is evasive of the troublesome for constructing MDPs. Inspired by the well-known actor-critic architecture, two Transformers are used to map observations to action probabilities and cumulative rewards respectively. Finally, we demonstrate the performance of the two proposed approaches in the context of drone deliveries, where the stochastic planning for the drone league is cast into a stochastic price-collecting Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) with time windows. Simulation results are compared with state-of-the-art methods in terms of solution quality, planning efficiency and scalability.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms are considered as a promising technique for next-generation communication networks due to their flexibility, mobility, low cost, and the ability to collaboratively and autonomously provide services. Distributed learning (DL) enables UAV swarms to intelligently provide communication services, multi-directional remote surveillance, and target tracking. In this survey, we first introduce several popular DL algorithms such as federated learning (FL), multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL), distributed inference, and split learning, and present a comprehensive overview of their applications for UAV swarms, such as trajectory design, power control, wireless resource allocation, user assignment, perception, and satellite communications. Then, we present several state-of-the-art applications of UAV swarms in wireless communication systems, such us reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS), virtual reality (VR), semantic communications, and discuss the problems and challenges that DL-enabled UAV swarms can solve in these applications. Finally, we describe open problems of using DL in UAV swarms and future research directions of DL enabled UAV swarms. In summary, this survey provides a comprehensive survey of various DL applications for UAV swarms in extensive scenarios.

Technology advancements in wireless communications and high-performance Extended Reality (XR) have empowered the developments of the Metaverse. The demand for Metaverse applications and hence, real-time digital twinning of real-world scenes is increasing. Nevertheless, the replication of 2D physical world images into 3D virtual world scenes is computationally intensive and requires computation offloading. The disparity in transmitted scene dimension (2D as opposed to 3D) leads to asymmetric data sizes in uplink (UL) and downlink (DL). To ensure the reliability and low latency of the system, we consider an asynchronous joint UL-DL scenario where in the UL stage, the smaller data size of the physical world scenes captured by multiple extended reality users (XUs) will be uploaded to the Metaverse Console (MC) to be construed and rendered. In the DL stage, the larger-size 3D virtual world scenes need to be transmitted back to the XUs. The decisions pertaining to computation offloading and channel assignment are optimized in the UL stage, and the MC will optimize power allocation for users assigned with a channel in the UL transmission stage. Some problems arise therefrom: (i) interactive multi-process chain, specifically Asynchronous Markov Decision Process (AMDP), (ii) joint optimization in multiple processes, and (iii) high-dimensional objective functions, or hybrid reward scenarios. To ensure the reliability and low latency of the system, we design a novel multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithm structure, namely Asynchronous Actors Hybrid Critic (AAHC). Extensive experiments demonstrate that compared to proposed baselines, AAHC obtains better solutions with preferable training time.

第一次采用了深入的增强学习方法来解决动态多核心纤维弹性光学网络（MCF-eons）中的路由，调制，频谱和核心分配（RMSCA）问题。为此，设计和实施了一个与OpenAI的健身房兼容的新环境，以模仿MCF -eons的运行。新的环境通过考虑网络状态和与物理层相关的方面来处理代理操作（选择路线，核心和频谱插槽）。后者包括可用的调制格式及其覆盖范围以及与MCF相关的障碍的核心间串扰（XT）。如果信号的产生质量是可以接受的，则环境将分配代理选择的资源。处理代理的操作后，环境被配置为为代理提供有关新网络状态的数值奖励和信息。通过仿真将四个不同药物的阻塞性能与MCF-eons中使用的3个基线启发式方法进行了比较。 NSFNET和COST239网络拓扑获得的结果表明，表现最佳的代理平均而言，在阻止最佳性基线启发式方法方面，最多可降低四倍的降低。

网络切片（NS）对于有效启用下一代网络中的发散网络应用至关重要。尽管如此，网络服务中的复杂服务质量（QoS）要求和多样性的异质性需要网络切片供应（NSP）优化的高计算时间。传统优化方法在满足网络应用程序的低潜伏期和高可靠性方面具有挑战性。为此，我们将实时NSP建模为在线网络切片配置（ONSP）问题。具体而言，我们将ONSP问题作为在线多目标整数编程优化（MOIPO）问题。然后，我们通过将近端策略优化（PPO）方法应用于交通需求预测来近似于Moipo问题的解决方案。我们的仿真结果表明，与最先进的Moipo求解器相比，该方法的有效性具有较低的SLA违规率和网络操作成本。

交通优化挑战，如负载平衡，流量调度和提高数据包交付时间，是广域网（WAN）中困难的在线决策问题。例如，需要复杂的启发式方法，以找到改善分组输送时间并最小化可能由链接故障或拥塞引起的中断的最佳路径。最近的加强学习（RL）算法的成功可以提供有用的解决方案，以建立更好的鲁棒系统，这些系统从无模式设置中学习。在这项工作中，我们考虑了一条路径优化问题，专门针对数据包路由，在大型复杂网络中。我们开发和评估一种无模型方法，应用多代理元增强学习（MAMRL），可以确定每个数据包的下一跳，以便将其传递到其目的地，最短的时间整体。具体地，我们建议利用和比较深度策略优化RL算法，以便在通信网络中启用分布式无模型控制，并呈现基于新的Meta学习的框架Mamrl，以便快速适应拓扑变化。为了评估所提出的框架，我们用各种WAN拓扑模拟。我们广泛的数据包级仿真结果表明，与古典最短路径和传统的加强学习方法相比，Mamrl即使网络需求增加也显着降低了平均分组交付时间;与非元深策略优化算法相比，我们的结果显示在连杆故障发生的同时出现相当的平均数据包交付时间时减少较少的剧集中的数据包丢失。

Terahertz频段（0.1---10 THZ）中的无线通信被视为未来第六代（6G）无线通信系统的关键促进技术之一，超出了大量多重输入多重输出（大量MIMO）技术。但是，THZ频率的非常高的传播衰减和分子吸收通常限制了信号传输距离和覆盖范围。从最近在可重构智能表面（RIS）上实现智能无线电传播环境的突破，我们为多跳RIS RIS辅助通信网络提供了一种新型的混合波束形成方案，以改善THZ波段频率的覆盖范围。特别是，部署了多个被动和可控的RIS，以协助基站（BS）和多个单人体用户之间的传输。我们通过利用最新的深钢筋学习（DRL）来应对传播损失的最新进展，研究了BS在BS和RISS上的模拟光束矩阵的联合设计。为了改善拟议的基于DRL的算法的收敛性，然后设计了两种算法，以初始化数字波束形成和使用交替优化技术的模拟波束形成矩阵。仿真结果表明，与基准相比，我们提出的方案能够改善50 \％的THZ通信范围。此外，还表明，我们提出的基于DRL的方法是解决NP-固定光束形成问题的最先进方法，尤其是当RIS辅助THZ通信网络的信号经历多个啤酒花时。

Recent technological advancements in space, air and ground components have made possible a new network paradigm called "space-air-ground integrated network" (SAGIN). Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) play a key role in SAGINs. However, due to UAVs' high dynamics and complexity, the real-world deployment of a SAGIN becomes a major barrier for realizing such SAGINs. Compared to the space and terrestrial components, UAVs are expected to meet performance requirements with high flexibility and dynamics using limited resources. Therefore, employing UAVs in various usage scenarios requires well-designed planning in algorithmic approaches. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of recent learning-based algorithmic approaches. We consider possible reward functions and discuss the state-of-the-art algorithms for optimizing the reward functions, including Q-learning, deep Q-learning, multi-armed bandit (MAB), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and satisfaction-based learning algorithms. Unlike other survey papers, we focus on the methodological perspective of the optimization problem, which can be applicable to various UAV-assisted missions on a SAGIN using these algorithms. We simulate users and environments according to real-world scenarios and compare the learning-based and PSO-based methods in terms of throughput, load, fairness, computation time, etc. We also implement and evaluate the 2-dimensional (2D) and 3-dimensional (3D) variations of these algorithms to reflect different deployment cases. Our simulation suggests that the $3$D satisfaction-based learning algorithm outperforms the other approaches for various metrics in most cases. We discuss some open challenges at the end and our findings aim to provide design guidelines for algorithm selections while optimizing the deployment of UAV-assisted SAGINs.

Graph mining tasks arise from many different application domains, ranging from social networks, transportation to E-commerce, etc., which have been receiving great attention from the theoretical and algorithmic design communities in recent years, and there has been some pioneering work employing the research-rich Reinforcement Learning (RL) techniques to address graph data mining tasks. However, these graph mining methods and RL models are dispersed in different research areas, which makes it hard to compare them. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive overview of RL and graph mining methods and generalize these methods to Graph Reinforcement Learning (GRL) as a unified formulation. We further discuss the applications of GRL methods across various domains and summarize the method descriptions, open-source codes, and benchmark datasets of GRL methods. Furthermore, we propose important directions and challenges to be solved in the future. As far as we know, this is the latest work on a comprehensive survey of GRL, this work provides a global view and a learning resource for scholars. In addition, we create an online open-source for both interested scholars who want to enter this rapidly developing domain and experts who would like to compare GRL methods.

In the context of an efficient network traffic engineering process where the network continuously measures a new traffic matrix and updates the set of paths in the network, an automated process is required to quickly and efficiently identify when and what set of paths should be used. Unfortunately, the burden of finding the optimal solution for the network updating process in each given time interval is high since the computation complexity of optimization approaches using linear programming increases significantly as the size of the network increases. In this paper, we use deep reinforcement learning to derive a data-driven algorithm that does the path selection in the network considering the overhead of route computation and path updates. Our proposed scheme leverages information about past network behavior to identify a set of robust paths to be used for multiple future time intervals to avoid the overhead of updating the forwarding behavior of routers frequently. We compare the results of our approach to other traffic engineering solutions through extensive simulations across real network topologies. Our results demonstrate that our scheme fares well by a factor of 40% with respect to reducing link utilization compared to traditional TE schemes such as ECMP. Our scheme provides a slightly higher link utilization (around 25%) compared to schemes that only minimize link utilization and do not care about path updating overhead.

高度动态的移动ad-hoc网络（MANET）仍然是开发和部署强大，高效和可扩展的路由协议的最具挑战性环境之一。在本文中，我们提出了DeepCQ +路由协议，以一种新颖的方式将新兴的多代理深度增强学习（Madrl）技术集成到现有的基于Q学习的路由协议及其变体中，并在各种拓扑结构中实现了持续更高的性能和移动配置。在保持基于Q学习的路由协议的整体协议结构的同时，DeepCQ +通过精心设计的Madrl代理替换静态配置的参数化阈值和手写规则，使得不需要这些参数的配置。广泛的模拟表明，与其基于Q学习的对应物相比，DeptCQ +产生的端到端吞吐量显着增加了端到端延迟（跳数）的明显劣化。在定性方面，也许更重要的是，Deepcq +在许多情况下维持了非常相似的性能提升，即在网络尺寸，移动条件和交通动态方面没有接受过培训。据我们所知，这是Madrl框架的第一次成功应用MANET路由问题，即使在训练有素的场景范围之外的环境中，即使在训练范围之外的环境中也能够高度的可扩展性和鲁棒性。这意味着我们的基于Marl的DeepCQ +设计解决方案显着提高了基于Q学习的CQ +基线方法的性能，以进行比较，并提高其实用性和解释性，因为现实世界的MANET环境可能会在训练范围的MANET场景之外变化。讨论了进一步提高性能和可扩展性的增益的额外技术。