Numerous important problems can be framed as learning from graph data. We propose a framework for learning convolutional neural networks for arbitrary graphs. These graphs may be undirected, directed, and with both discrete and continuous node and edge attributes. Analogous to image-based convolutional networks that operate on locally connected regions of the input, we present a general approach to extracting locally connected regions from graphs. Using established benchmark data sets, we demonstrate that the learned feature representations are competitive with state of the art graph kernels and that their computation is highly efficient.

在过去十年中，图形内核引起了很多关注，并在结构化数据上发展成为一种快速发展的学习分支。在过去的20年中，该领域发生的相当大的研究活动导致开发数十个图形内核，每个图形内核都对焦于图形的特定结构性质。图形内核已成功地成功地在广泛的域中，从社交网络到生物信息学。本调查的目标是提供图形内核的文献的统一视图。特别是，我们概述了各种图形内核。此外，我们对公共数据集的几个内核进行了实验评估，并提供了比较研究。最后，我们讨论图形内核的关键应用，并概述了一些仍有待解决的挑战。

In this article, we propose a family of efficient kernels for large graphs with discrete node labels. Key to our method is a rapid feature extraction scheme based on the Weisfeiler-Lehman test of isomorphism on graphs. It maps the original graph to a sequence of graphs, whose node attributes capture topological and label information. A family of kernels can be defined based on this Weisfeiler-Lehman sequence of graphs, including a highly efficient kernel comparing subtree-like patterns. Its runtime scales only linearly in the number of edges of the graphs and the length of the Weisfeiler-Lehman graph sequence. In our experimental evaluation, our kernels outperform state-of-the-art graph kernels on several graph classification benchmark data sets in terms of accuracy and runtime. Our kernels open the door to large-scale applications of graph kernels in various disciplines such as computational biology and social network analysis.

图形内核是历史上最广泛使用的图形分类任务的技术。然而，由于图的手工制作的组合特征，这些方法具有有限的性能。近年来，由于其性能卓越，图形神经网络（GNNS）已成为与下游图形相关任务的最先进的方法。大多数GNN基于消息传递神经网络（MPNN）框架。然而，最近的研究表明，MPNN不能超过Weisfeiler-Lehman（WL）算法在图形同构术中的力量。为了解决现有图形内核和GNN方法的限制，在本文中，我们提出了一种新的GNN框架，称为\ Texit {内核图形神经网络}（Kernnns），该框架将图形内核集成到GNN的消息传递过程中。通过卷积神经网络（CNNS）中的卷积滤波器的启发，KERGNNS采用可训练的隐藏图作为绘图过滤器，该绘图过滤器与子图组合以使用图形内核更新节点嵌入式。此外，我们表明MPNN可以被视为Kergnns的特殊情况。我们将Kergnns应用于多个与图形相关的任务，并使用交叉验证来与基准进行公平比较。我们表明，与现有的现有方法相比，我们的方法达到了竞争性能，证明了增加GNN的表现能力的可能性。我们还表明，KERGNNS中的训练有素的图形过滤器可以揭示数据集的本地图形结构，与传统GNN模型相比，显着提高了模型解释性。

近年来，基于Weisfeiler-Leman算法的算法和神经架构，是一个众所周知的Graph同构问题的启发式问题，它成为具有图形和关系数据的机器学习的强大工具。在这里，我们全面概述了机器学习设置中的算法的使用，专注于监督的制度。我们讨论了理论背景，展示了如何将其用于监督的图形和节点表示学习，讨论最近的扩展，并概述算法的连接（置换 - ）方面的神经结构。此外，我们概述了当前的应用和未来方向，以刺激进一步的研究。

Graph classification is an important area in both modern research and industry. Multiple applications, especially in chemistry and novel drug discovery, encourage rapid development of machine learning models in this area. To keep up with the pace of new research, proper experimental design, fair evaluation, and independent benchmarks are essential. Design of strong baselines is an indispensable element of such works. In this thesis, we explore multiple approaches to graph classification. We focus on Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), which emerged as a de facto standard deep learning technique for graph representation learning. Classical approaches, such as graph descriptors and molecular fingerprints, are also addressed. We design fair evaluation experimental protocol and choose proper datasets collection. This allows us to perform numerous experiments and rigorously analyze modern approaches. We arrive to many conclusions, which shed new light on performance and quality of novel algorithms. We investigate application of Jumping Knowledge GNN architecture to graph classification, which proves to be an efficient tool for improving base graph neural network architectures. Multiple improvements to baseline models are also proposed and experimentally verified, which constitutes an important contribution to the field of fair model comparison.

Deep learning has revolutionized many machine learning tasks in recent years, ranging from image classification and video processing to speech recognition and natural language understanding. The data in these tasks are typically represented in the Euclidean space. However, there is an increasing number of applications where data are generated from non-Euclidean domains and are represented as graphs with complex relationships and interdependency between objects. The complexity of graph data has imposed significant challenges on existing machine learning algorithms. Recently, many studies on extending deep learning approaches for graph data have emerged. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive overview of graph neural networks (GNNs) in data mining and machine learning fields. We propose a new taxonomy to divide the state-of-the-art graph neural networks into four categories, namely recurrent graph neural networks, convolutional graph neural networks, graph autoencoders, and spatial-temporal graph neural networks. We further discuss the applications of graph neural networks across various domains and summarize the open source codes, benchmark data sets, and model evaluation of graph neural networks. Finally, we propose potential research directions in this rapidly growing field.

Graph神经网络（GNN）最近已成为使用图的机器学习的主要范式。对GNNS的研究主要集中于消息传递神经网络（MPNNS）的家族。与同构的Weisfeiler-Leman（WL）测试类似，这些模型遵循迭代的邻域聚合过程以更新顶点表示，并通过汇总顶点表示来更新顶点图表。尽管非常成功，但在过去的几年中，对MPNN进行了深入的研究。因此，需要新颖的体系结构，这将使该领域的研究能够脱离MPNN。在本文中，我们提出了一个新的图形神经网络模型，即所谓的$ \ pi $ -gnn，该模型学习了每个图的“软”排列（即双随机）矩阵，从而将所有图形投影到一个共同的矢量空间中。学到的矩阵在输入图的顶点上强加了“软”顺序，并基于此顺序，将邻接矩阵映射到向量中。这些向量可以被送入完全连接或卷积的层，以应对监督的学习任务。在大图的情况下，为了使模型在运行时间和记忆方面更有效，我们进一步放松了双随机矩阵，以使其排列随机矩阵。我们从经验上评估了图形分类和图形回归数据集的模型，并表明它与最新模型达到了性能竞争。

许多现代神经架构的核心的卷积运算符可以有效地被视为在输入矩阵和滤波器之间执行点产品。虽然这很容易适用于诸如图像的数据，其可以在欧几里德空间中表示为常规网格，延伸卷积操作者以在图形上工作，而是由于它们的不规则结构而被证明更具有挑战性。在本文中，我们建议使用图形内部产品的图形内核，即在图形上计算内部产品，以将标准卷积运算符扩展到图形域。这使我们能够定义不需要计算输入图的嵌入的完全结构模型。我们的架构允许插入任何类型和数量的图形内核，并具有在培训过程中学到的结构面具方面提供一些可解释性的额外益处，类似于传统卷积神经网络中的卷积掩模发生的事情。我们执行广泛的消融研究，调查模型超参数的影响，我们表明我们的模型在标准图形分类数据集中实现了竞争性能。

在处理大规模网络和关系数据时，降低图是基本的。它们可以通过在粗糙的结构中求解它们来缩小高度计算影响的尺寸。同时，图减少起着在图神经网络中合并层的作用，从结构中提取多分辨率表示。在这些情况下，还原机制保留距离关系和拓扑特性的能力似乎是基本的，以及可扩展性，使其能够应用于实际大小的问题。在本文中，我们基于最大重量$ k $独立的集合的图理论概念引入了图形粗化机制，从而提供了一种贪婪的算法，该算法允许在GPU上有效地并行实现。我们的方法是常规数据（图像，序列）中的第一个图形结构化对应物。我们证明了在路径长度上的失真界限的理论保证，以及在污垢图中保留关键拓扑特性的能力。我们利用这些概念来定义我们在图形分类任务中经验评估的图表合并机制，表明它与文献中的合并方法进行了比较。

这篇综述的目的是将读者介绍到图表内，以将其应用于化学信息学中的分类问题。图内核是使我们能够推断分子的化学特性的功能，可以帮助您完成诸如寻找适合药物设计的化合物等任务。内核方法的使用只是一种特殊的两种方式量化了图之间的相似性。我们将讨论限制在这种方法上，尽管近年来已经出现了流行的替代方法，但最著名的是图形神经网络。

尽管（消息通话）图形神经网络在图形或一般关系数据上近似置换量等函数方面具有明显的局限性，但更具表现力的高阶图神经网络不会扩展到大图。他们要么在$ k $ - 订单张量子上操作，要么考虑所有$ k $ - 节点子图，这意味着在内存需求中对$ k $的指数依赖，并且不适合图形的稀疏性。通过为图同构问题引入新的启发式方法，我们设计了一类通用的，置换式的图形网络，与以前的体系结构不同，该网络在表达性和可伸缩性之间提供了细粒度的控制，并适应了图的稀疏性。这些体系结构与监督节点和图形级别的标准高阶网络以及回归体系中的标准高阶图网络相比大大减少了计算时间，同时在预测性能方面显着改善了标准图神经网络和图形内核体系结构。

最近出现了许多子图增强图神经网络（GNN），可证明增强了标准（消息通话）GNN的表达能力。但是，对这些方法之间的相互关系和weisfeiler层次结构的关系有限。此外，当前的方法要么使用给定尺寸的所有子图，要随机均匀地对其进行采样，或者使用手工制作的启发式方法，而不是学习以数据驱动的方式选择子图。在这里，我们提供了一种统一的方法来研究此类体系结构，通过引入理论框架并扩展了亚图增强GNN的已知表达结果。具体而言，我们表明，增加子图的大小总是会增加表达能力，并通过将它们与已建立的$ k \ text { - } \ Mathsf {Wl} $ hierArchy联系起来，从而更好地理解其局限性。此外，我们还使用最近通过复杂的离散概率分布进行反向传播的方法探索了学习对子图进行采样的不同方法。从经验上讲，我们研究了不同子图增强的GNN的预测性能，表明我们的数据驱动体系结构与非DATA驱动的亚图增强图形神经网络相比，在标准基准数据集上提高了对标准基准数据集的预测准确性，同时减少了计算时间。

The goal of graph summarization is to represent large graphs in a structured and compact way. A graph summary based on equivalence classes preserves pre-defined features of a graph's vertex within a $k$-hop neighborhood such as the vertex labels and edge labels. Based on these neighborhood characteristics, the vertex is assigned to an equivalence class. The calculation of the assigned equivalence class must be a permutation invariant operation on the pre-defined features. This is achieved by sorting on the feature values, e. g., the edge labels, which is computationally expensive, and subsequently hashing the result. Graph Neural Networks (GNN) fulfill the permutation invariance requirement. We formulate the problem of graph summarization as a subgraph classification task on the root vertex of the $k$-hop neighborhood. We adapt different GNN architectures, both based on the popular message-passing protocol and alternative approaches, to perform the structural graph summarization task. We compare different GNNs with a standard multi-layer perceptron (MLP) and Bloom filter as non-neural method. For our experiments, we consider four popular graph summary models on a large web graph. This resembles challenging multi-class vertex classification tasks with the numbers of classes ranging from $576$ to multiple hundreds of thousands. Our results show that the performance of GNNs are close to each other. In three out of four experiments, the non-message-passing GraphMLP model outperforms the other GNNs. The performance of the standard MLP is extraordinary good, especially in the presence of many classes. Finally, the Bloom filter outperforms all neural architectures by a large margin, except for the dataset with the fewest number of $576$ classes.

Pre-publication draft of a book to be published byMorgan & Claypool publishers. Unedited version released with permission. All relevant copyrights held by the author and publisher extend to this pre-publication draft.

We consider the prediction of interfaces between proteins, a challenging problem with important applications in drug discovery and design, and examine the performance of existing and newly proposed spatial graph convolution operators for this task. By performing convolution over a local neighborhood of a node of interest, we are able to stack multiple layers of convolution and learn effective latent representations that integrate information across the graph that represent the three dimensional structure of a protein of interest. An architecture that combines the learned features across pairs of proteins is then used to classify pairs of amino acid residues as part of an interface or not. In our experiments, several graph convolution operators yielded accuracy that is better than the state-of-the-art SVM method in this task. † denotes equal contribution 31st Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2017), Long Beach, CA, USA.

Machine learning on graphs is an important and ubiquitous task with applications ranging from drug design to friendship recommendation in social networks. The primary challenge in this domain is finding a way to represent, or encode, graph structure so that it can be easily exploited by machine learning models. Traditionally, machine learning approaches relied on user-defined heuristics to extract features encoding structural information about a graph (e.g., degree statistics or kernel functions). However, recent years have seen a surge in approaches that automatically learn to encode graph structure into low-dimensional embeddings, using techniques based on deep learning and nonlinear dimensionality reduction. Here we provide a conceptual review of key advancements in this area of representation learning on graphs, including matrix factorization-based methods, random-walk based algorithms, and graph neural networks. We review methods to embed individual nodes as well as approaches to embed entire (sub)graphs. In doing so, we develop a unified framework to describe these recent approaches, and we highlight a number of important applications and directions for future work.

Link prediction is a key problem for network-structured data. Link prediction heuristics use some score functions, such as common neighbors and Katz index, to measure the likelihood of links. They have obtained wide practical uses due to their simplicity, interpretability, and for some of them, scalability. However, every heuristic has a strong assumption on when two nodes are likely to link, which limits their effectiveness on networks where these assumptions fail. In this regard, a more reasonable way should be learning a suitable heuristic from a given network instead of using predefined ones. By extracting a local subgraph around each target link, we aim to learn a function mapping the subgraph patterns to link existence, thus automatically learning a "heuristic" that suits the current network. In this paper, we study this heuristic learning paradigm for link prediction. First, we develop a novel γ-decaying heuristic theory. The theory unifies a wide range of heuristics in a single framework, and proves that all these heuristics can be well approximated from local subgraphs. Our results show that local subgraphs reserve rich information related to link existence. Second, based on the γ-decaying theory, we propose a new method to learn heuristics from local subgraphs using a graph neural network (GNN). Its experimental results show unprecedented performance, working consistently well on a wide range of problems.

Recently, graph neural networks (GNNs) have revolutionized the field of graph representation learning through effectively learned node embeddings, and achieved state-of-the-art results in tasks such as node classification and link prediction. However, current GNN methods are inherently flat and do not learn hierarchical representations of graphs-a limitation that is especially problematic for the task of graph classification, where the goal is to predict the label associated with an entire graph. Here we propose DIFFPOOL, a differentiable graph pooling module that can generate hierarchical representations of graphs and can be combined with various graph neural network architectures in an end-to-end fashion. DIFFPOOL learns a differentiable soft cluster assignment for nodes at each layer of a deep GNN, mapping nodes to a set of clusters, which then form the coarsened input for the next GNN layer. Our experimental results show that combining existing GNN methods with DIFFPOOL yields an average improvement of 5-10% accuracy on graph classification benchmarks, compared to all existing pooling approaches, achieving a new state-of-the-art on four out of five benchmark data sets.

Low-dimensional embeddings of nodes in large graphs have proved extremely useful in a variety of prediction tasks, from content recommendation to identifying protein functions. However, most existing approaches require that all nodes in the graph are present during training of the embeddings; these previous approaches are inherently transductive and do not naturally generalize to unseen nodes. Here we present GraphSAGE, a general inductive framework that leverages node feature information (e.g., text attributes) to efficiently generate node embeddings for previously unseen data. Instead of training individual embeddings for each node, we learn a function that generates embeddings by sampling and aggregating features from a node's local neighborhood. Our algorithm outperforms strong baselines on three inductive node-classification benchmarks: we classify the category of unseen nodes in evolving information graphs based on citation and Reddit post data, and we show that our algorithm generalizes to completely unseen graphs using a multi-graph dataset of protein-protein interactions. * The two first authors made equal contributions. 1 While it is common to refer to these data structures as social or biological networks, we use the term graph to avoid ambiguity with neural network terminology.