Whilst deep neural networks have shown great empirical success, there is still much work to be done to understand their theoretical properties. In this paper, we study the relationship between random, wide, fully connected, feedforward networks with more than one hidden layer and Gaussian processes with a recursive kernel definition. We show that, under broad conditions, as we make the architecture increasingly wide, the implied random function converges in distribution to a Gaussian process, formalising and extending existing results by Neal (1996) to deep networks. To evaluate convergence rates empirically, we use maximum mean discrepancy. We then compare finite Bayesian deep networks from the literature to Gaussian processes in terms of the key predictive quantities of interest, finding that in some cases the agreement can be very close. We discuss the desirability of Gaussian process behaviour and review non-Gaussian alternative models from the literature. 1

宽度限制最近是深度学习研究的焦点：模数计算实用，做更广泛的网络优于较窄的网络？当传统网络增益具有宽度的代表性，潜在掩盖任何负面影响，回答这个问题一直在具有挑战性。我们在本文中的分析通过神经网络的概括到深层高斯过程（深GP），一类非参数分层模型，占据了神经网络的非参数分层模型。在这样做时，我们的目标是了解一旦对给定建模任务的容量足够的容量，才能了解宽度（标准）神经网络。我们深入GP的理论和经验结果表明，大宽度可能对等级模型有害。令人惊讶的是，我们证明了甚至非参数的深GP融合到高斯过程，实际上变得浅薄而没有任何代表性的力量。对应于数据适应性基本函数的混合的后后，与宽度变得较小。我们的尾部分析表明，宽度和深度具有相反的影响：深度突出了模型的非高斯，而宽度使模型越来越高斯。我们发现有一个“甜蜜点”，可以在限制GP行为防止适应性之前最大化测试性能，以宽度= 1或宽度= 2用于非参数深GP。这些结果对具有L2正规化训练的传统神经网络中的相同现象（类似于参数的高斯），使得这种神经网络可能需要多达500至1000个隐藏单元的现象，以获得足够的容量 - 取决于数据集 - 但进一步的宽度降低了性能。

我们引入了重新定性，这是一种数据依赖性的重新聚集化，将贝叶斯神经网络（BNN）转化为后部的分布，其KL对BNN对BNN的差异随着层宽度的增长而消失。重新定义图直接作用于参数，其分析简单性补充了宽BNN在功能空间中宽BNN的已知神经网络过程（NNGP）行为。利用重新定性，我们开发了马尔可夫链蒙特卡洛（MCMC）后采样算法，该算法将BNN更快地混合在一起。这与MCMC在高维度上的表现差异很差。对于完全连接和残留网络，我们观察到有效样本量高达50倍。在各个宽度上都取得了改进，并在层宽度的重新培训和标准BNN之间的边缘。

Classical asymptotic theory for statistical inference usually involves calibrating a statistic by fixing the dimension $d$ while letting the sample size $n$ increase to infinity. Recently, much effort has been dedicated towards understanding how these methods behave in high-dimensional settings, where $d$ and $n$ both increase to infinity together. This often leads to different inference procedures, depending on the assumptions about the dimensionality, leaving the practitioner in a bind: given a dataset with 100 samples in 20 dimensions, should they calibrate by assuming $n \gg d$, or $d/n \approx 0.2$? This paper considers the goal of dimension-agnostic inference; developing methods whose validity does not depend on any assumption on $d$ versus $n$. We introduce an approach that uses variational representations of existing test statistics along with sample splitting and self-normalization to produce a new test statistic with a Gaussian limiting distribution, regardless of how $d$ scales with $n$. The resulting statistic can be viewed as a careful modification of degenerate U-statistics, dropping diagonal blocks and retaining off-diagonal blocks. We exemplify our technique for some classical problems including one-sample mean and covariance testing, and show that our tests have minimax rate-optimal power against appropriate local alternatives. In most settings, our cross U-statistic matches the high-dimensional power of the corresponding (degenerate) U-statistic up to a $\sqrt{2}$ factor.

广义贝叶斯推理使用损失函数而不是可能性的先前信仰更新，因此可以用于赋予鲁棒性，以防止可能的错误规范的可能性。在这里，我们认为广泛化的贝叶斯推论斯坦坦差异作为损失函数的损失，由应用程序的可能性含有难治性归一化常数。在这种情况下，斯坦因差异来避免归一化恒定的评估，并产生封闭形式或使用标准马尔可夫链蒙特卡罗的通用后出版物。在理论层面上，我们显示了一致性，渐近的正常性和偏见 - 稳健性，突出了这些物业如何受到斯坦因差异的选择。然后，我们提供关于一系列棘手分布的数值实验，包括基于内核的指数家庭模型和非高斯图形模型的应用。

This article concerns Bayesian inference using deep linear networks with output dimension one. In the interpolating (zero noise) regime we show that with Gaussian weight priors and MSE negative log-likelihood loss both the predictive posterior and the Bayesian model evidence can be written in closed form in terms of a class of meromorphic special functions called Meijer-G functions. These results are non-asymptotic and hold for any training dataset, network depth, and hidden layer widths, giving exact solutions to Bayesian interpolation using a deep Gaussian process with a Euclidean covariance at each layer. Through novel asymptotic expansions of Meijer-G functions, a rich new picture of the role of depth emerges. Specifically, we find that the posteriors in deep linear networks with data-independent priors are the same as in shallow networks with evidence maximizing data-dependent priors. In this sense, deep linear networks make provably optimal predictions. We also prove that, starting from data-agnostic priors, Bayesian model evidence in wide networks is only maximized at infinite depth. This gives a principled reason to prefer deeper networks (at least in the linear case). Finally, our results show that with data-agnostic priors a novel notion of effective depth given by \[\#\text{hidden layers}\times\frac{\#\text{training data}}{\text{network width}}\] determines the Bayesian posterior in wide linear networks, giving rigorous new scaling laws for generalization error.

为了理论上了解训练有素的深神经网络的行为，有必要研究来自随机初始化的梯度方法引起的动态。然而，这些模型的非线性和组成结构使得这些动态难以分析。为了克服这些挑战，最近出现了大宽度的渐近学作为富有成效的观点，并导致了对真实世界的深网络的实用洞察。对于双层神经网络，已经通过这些渐近学理解，训练模型的性质根据初始随机权重的规模而变化，从内核制度（大初始方差）到特征学习制度（对于小初始方差）。对于更深的网络，更多的制度是可能的，并且在本文中，我们详细研究了与神经网络的“卑鄙字段”限制相对应的“小”初始化的特定选择，我们称之为可分配的参数化（IP）。首先，我们展示了标准I.I.D.零平均初始化，具有多于四个层的神经网络的可集参数，从无限宽度限制的静止点开始，并且不会发生学习。然后，我们提出了各种方法来避免这种琐碎的行为并详细分析所得到的动态。特别是，这些方法中的一种包括使用大的初始学习速率，并且我们表明它相当于最近提出的最大更新参数化$ \ mu $ p的修改。我们将结果与图像分类任务的数值实验确认，其另外显示出在尚未捕获的激活功能的各种选择之间的行为中的强烈差异。

贝叶斯神经网络试图将神经网络的强大预测性能与与贝叶斯架构预测产出相关的不确定性的正式量化相结合。然而，它仍然不清楚如何在升入网络的输出空间时，如何赋予网络的参数。提出了一种可能的解决方案，使用户能够为手头的任务提供适当的高斯过程协方差函数。我们的方法构造了网络参数的先前分配，称为ridgelet，它近似于网络的输出空间中的Posited高斯过程。与神经网络和高斯过程之间的连接的现有工作相比，我们的分析是非渐近的，提供有限的样本大小的错误界限。这建立了贝叶斯神经网络可以近似任何高斯过程，其协方差函数是足够规律的任何高斯过程。我们的实验评估仅限于概念验证，在那里我们证明ridgele先前可以在可以提供合适的高斯过程的回归问题之前出现非结构化。

本文介绍了一个新的神经网络，在$ \ mathbb r ^ d $的真实值函数之前，通过施工更容易和便宜地缩放到域维数$ d $与通常的karhunen-lo \`eve相比功能空间之前。新的先前是高斯神经网络，其中每个重量和偏差都有一个独立的高斯的先前，但是差异的关键差异是，差异在网络的宽度下减小，使得所得到的函数几乎肯定地定义了很多无限宽度网络的极限。我们表明，在推断未知功能的贝叶斯治疗中，使用希尔伯特Space Markov链蒙特卡罗（MCMC）方法，诱导的后续功能均可用于蒙特卡罗采样。这种类型的MCMC很受欢迎，例如，在贝叶斯逆问题文献中，因为它在网眼细化下稳定，即接受概率不会缩小到0美元，因为函数之前的更多参数甚至是AD Infinitum。在数值例子中，我们展示了其他功能空间前沿的这些竞争优势。我们还在贝叶斯加固学习中实施示例以自动化数据的任务，并首次演示MCMC的稳定性以对这些类型的问题进行网格细化。

The kernel Maximum Mean Discrepancy~(MMD) is a popular multivariate distance metric between distributions that has found utility in two-sample testing. The usual kernel-MMD test statistic is a degenerate U-statistic under the null, and thus it has an intractable limiting distribution. Hence, to design a level-$\alpha$ test, one usually selects the rejection threshold as the $(1-\alpha)$-quantile of the permutation distribution. The resulting nonparametric test has finite-sample validity but suffers from large computational cost, since every permutation takes quadratic time. We propose the cross-MMD, a new quadratic-time MMD test statistic based on sample-splitting and studentization. We prove that under mild assumptions, the cross-MMD has a limiting standard Gaussian distribution under the null. Importantly, we also show that the resulting test is consistent against any fixed alternative, and when using the Gaussian kernel, it has minimax rate-optimal power against local alternatives. For large sample sizes, our new cross-MMD provides a significant speedup over the MMD, for only a slight loss in power.

The logit outputs of a feedforward neural network at initialization are conditionally Gaussian, given a random covariance matrix defined by the penultimate layer. In this work, we study the distribution of this random matrix. Recent work has shown that shaping the activation function as network depth grows large is necessary for this covariance matrix to be non-degenerate. However, the current infinite-width-style understanding of this shaping method is unsatisfactory for large depth: infinite-width analyses ignore the microscopic fluctuations from layer to layer, but these fluctuations accumulate over many layers. To overcome this shortcoming, we study the random covariance matrix in the shaped infinite-depth-and-width limit. We identify the precise scaling of the activation function necessary to arrive at a non-trivial limit, and show that the random covariance matrix is governed by a stochastic differential equation (SDE) that we call the Neural Covariance SDE. Using simulations, we show that the SDE closely matches the distribution of the random covariance matrix of finite networks. Additionally, we recover an if-and-only-if condition for exploding and vanishing norms of large shaped networks based on the activation function.

现代深度神经网络（DNN）的成功基于其在多层转换投入以建立良好高级表示的能力。因此，了解这种表示学习过程至关重要。但是，我们不能使用涉及无限宽度限制的标准理论方法，因为它们消除了代表性学习。因此，我们开发了一个新的无限宽度限制，即表示的学习限制，该限制表现出表示形式的学习反映，但在有限宽度网络中，但同时仍然非常容易处理。例如，表示学习限制在深处的高斯过程中提供了恰好具有多种内核的多元高斯后期，包括所有各向同性（距离依赖）内核。我们得出一个优雅的目标，描述了每个网络层如何学习在输入和输出之间插值的表示形式。最后，我们使用此限制和目标来开发对内核方法的灵活，深刻的概括，我们称之为深内核机器（DKMS）。我们表明，可以使用受高斯过程文献中诱导点方法启发的方法将DKMS缩放到大数据集，并且我们表明DKMS表现出优于其他基于内核方法的性能。

We propose a framework for analyzing and comparing distributions, which we use to construct statistical tests to determine if two samples are drawn from different distributions. Our test statistic is the largest difference in expectations over functions in the unit ball of a reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHS), and is called the maximum mean discrepancy (MMD). We present two distributionfree tests based on large deviation bounds for the MMD, and a third test based on the asymptotic distribution of this statistic. The MMD can be computed in quadratic time, although efficient linear time approximations are available. Our statistic is an instance of an integral probability metric, and various classical metrics on distributions are obtained when alternative function classes are used in place of an RKHS. We apply our two-sample tests to a variety of problems, including attribute matching for databases using the Hungarian marriage method, where they perform strongly. Excellent performance is also obtained when comparing distributions over graphs, for which these are the first such tests.

深度重新结合因实现最新的机器学习任务而被认可。但是，这些体系结构的出色性能取决于培训程序，需要精心制作以避免消失或爆炸梯度，尤其是随着深度$ l $的增加。关于如何减轻此问题，尚无共识，尽管广泛讨论的策略在于将每一层的输出缩放为$ \ alpha_l $。我们在概率环境中显示标准I.I.D.初始化，唯一的非平凡动力学是$ \ alpha_l = 1/\ sqrt {l} $（其他选择导致爆炸或身份映射）。该缩放因子在连续的时间限制中对应于神经随机微分方程，这与广泛的解释相反，即深度重新连接是神经普通微分方程的离散化。相比之下，在后一种制度中，具有特定相关初始化和$ \ alpha_l = 1/l $获得稳定性。我们的分析表明，与层指数的函数之间的缩放比例和规律性之间存在很强的相互作用。最后，在一系列实验中，我们表现出由这两个参数驱动的连续范围，这在训练之前和之后会共同影响性能。

In nonparametric independence testing, we observe i.i.d.\ data $\{(X_i,Y_i)\}_{i=1}^n$, where $X \in \mathcal{X}, Y \in \mathcal{Y}$ lie in any general spaces, and we wish to test the null that $X$ is independent of $Y$. Modern test statistics such as the kernel Hilbert-Schmidt Independence Criterion (HSIC) and Distance Covariance (dCov) have intractable null distributions due to the degeneracy of the underlying U-statistics. Thus, in practice, one often resorts to using permutation testing, which provides a nonasymptotic guarantee at the expense of recalculating the quadratic-time statistics (say) a few hundred times. This paper provides a simple but nontrivial modification of HSIC and dCov (called xHSIC and xdCov, pronounced ``cross'' HSIC/dCov) so that they have a limiting Gaussian distribution under the null, and thus do not require permutations. This requires building on the newly developed theory of cross U-statistics by Kim and Ramdas (2020), and in particular developing several nontrivial extensions of the theory in Shekhar et al. (2022), which developed an analogous permutation-free kernel two-sample test. We show that our new tests, like the originals, are consistent against fixed alternatives, and minimax rate optimal against smooth local alternatives. Numerical simulations demonstrate that compared to the full dCov or HSIC, our variants have the same power up to a $\sqrt 2$ factor, giving practitioners a new option for large problems or data-analysis pipelines where computation, not sample size, could be the bottleneck.

基于内核的测试提供了一个简单而有效的框架，该框架使用繁殖内核希尔伯特空间的理论设计非参数测试程序。在本文中，我们提出了新的理论工具，可用于在几种数据方案以及许多不同的测试问题中研究基于内核测试的渐近行为。与当前的方法不同，我们的方法避免使用冗长的$ u $和$ v $统计信息扩展并限制定理，该定理通常出现在文献中，并直接与希尔伯特空格上的随机功能合作。因此，我们的框架会导致对内核测试的简单明了的分析，只需要轻度的规律条件。此外，我们表明，通常可以通过证明我们方法所需的规律条件既足够又需要进行必要的规律条件来改进我们的分析。为了说明我们的方法的有效性，我们为有条件的独立性测试问题提供了一项新的内核测试，以及针对已知的基于内核测试的新分析。

近年来，人们对无限宽网络与高斯流程之间的对应关系产生了越来越多的兴趣。尽管当前的神经网络高斯过程理论具有有效性和优雅性，但据我们所知，所有神经网络高斯过程基本上都是通过增加宽度引起的。但是，在深度学习的时代，关于神经网络的更多关注是它的深度以及深度如何影响网络的行为。受宽度深度对称考虑因素的启发，我们使用快捷网络表明，增加神经网络的深度也会引起高斯过程，这是对现有理论的宝贵补充，并有助于揭示的真实情况深度学习。除了深入提出的高斯过程之外，我们从理论上表征了其均匀的紧密度和高斯工艺过程中最小的特征值。这些特征不仅可以增强我们对拟议深度引起的高斯过程的理解，而且还可以为未来的应用铺平道路。最后，我们通过对两个基准数据集的回归实验来检查提出的高斯过程的性能。

Testing the significance of a variable or group of variables $X$ for predicting a response $Y$, given additional covariates $Z$, is a ubiquitous task in statistics. A simple but common approach is to specify a linear model, and then test whether the regression coefficient for $X$ is non-zero. However, when the model is misspecified, the test may have poor power, for example when $X$ is involved in complex interactions, or lead to many false rejections. In this work we study the problem of testing the model-free null of conditional mean independence, i.e. that the conditional mean of $Y$ given $X$ and $Z$ does not depend on $X$. We propose a simple and general framework that can leverage flexible nonparametric or machine learning methods, such as additive models or random forests, to yield both robust error control and high power. The procedure involves using these methods to perform regressions, first to estimate a form of projection of $Y$ on $X$ and $Z$ using one half of the data, and then to estimate the expected conditional covariance between this projection and $Y$ on the remaining half of the data. While the approach is general, we show that a version of our procedure using spline regression achieves what we show is the minimax optimal rate in this nonparametric testing problem. Numerical experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach both in terms of maintaining Type I error control, and power, compared to several existing approaches.

Deep Gaussian工艺（DGP）作为贝叶斯学习的先验模型直观地利用功能组成中的表达能力。 DGP还提供了不同的建模功能，但是推断很具有挑战性，因为潜在功能空间的边缘化是无法处理的。借助Bochner定理，具有平方指数内核的DGP可以看作是由随机特征层，正弦和余弦激活单元以及随机重量层组成的深度三角网络。在具有瓶颈的宽极限中，我们表明重量空间视图产生了相同的有效协方差函数，该函数先前在功能空间中获得。同样，在网络参数上改变先前的分布相当于使用不同的内核。因此，DGP可以转换为深瓶颈触发网络，可以通过该网络获得确切的最大后验估计。有趣的是，网络表示可以研究DGP的神经切线核，这也可能揭示了棘手的预测分布的平均值。从统计上讲，与浅网络不同，有限宽度的深网具有与极限内核的协方差，并且内部和外部宽度可能在功能学习中起不同的作用。存在数值模拟以支持我们的发现。

本论文主要涉及解决深层（时间）高斯过程（DGP）回归问题的状态空间方法。更具体地，我们代表DGP作为分层组合的随机微分方程（SDES），并且我们通过使用状态空间过滤和平滑方法来解决DGP回归问题。由此产生的状态空间DGP（SS-DGP）模型生成丰富的电视等级，与建模许多不规则信号/功能兼容。此外，由于他们的马尔可道结构，通过使用贝叶斯滤波和平滑方法可以有效地解决SS-DGPS回归问题。本论文的第二次贡献是我们通过使用泰勒力矩膨胀（TME）方法来解决连续离散高斯滤波和平滑问题。这诱导了一类滤波器和SmooThers，其可以渐近地精确地预测随机微分方程（SDES）解决方案的平均值和协方差。此外，TME方法和TME过滤器和SmoOthers兼容模拟SS-DGP并解决其回归问题。最后，本文具有多种状态 - 空间（深）GPS的应用。这些应用主要包括（i）来自部分观察到的轨迹的SDES的未知漂移功能和信号的光谱 - 时间特征估计。