In many engineering optimization problems, the number of function evaluations is severely limited by time or cost. These problems pose a special challenge to the field of global optimization, since existing methods often require more function evaluations than can be comfortably afforded. One way to address this challenge is to fit response surfaces to data collected by evaluating the objective and constraint functions at a few points. These surfaces can then be used for visualization, tradeoff analysis, and optimization. In this paper, we introduce the reader to a response surface methodology that is especially good at modeling the nonlinear, multimodal functions that often occur in engineering. We then show how these approximating functions can be used to construct an efficient global optimization algorithm with a credible stopping rule. The key to using response surfaces for global optimization lies in balancing the need to exploit the approximating surface (by sampling where it is minimized) with the need to improve the approximation (by sampling where prediction error may be high). Striking this balance requires solving certain auxiliary problems which have previously been considered intractable, but we show how these computational obstacles can be overcome.
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这项正在进行的工作旨在为统计学习提供统一的介绍,从诸如GMM和HMM等经典模型到现代神经网络(如VAE和扩散模型)缓慢地构建。如今,有许多互联网资源可以孤立地解释这一点或新的机器学习算法,但是它们并没有(也不能在如此简短的空间中)将这些算法彼此连接起来,或者与统计模型的经典文献相连现代算法出现了。同样明显缺乏的是一个单一的符号系统,尽管对那些已经熟悉材料的人(如这些帖子的作者)不满意,但对新手的入境造成了重大障碍。同样,我的目的是将各种模型(尽可能)吸收到一个用于推理和学习的框架上,表明(以及为什么)如何以最小的变化将一个模型更改为另一个模型(其中一些是新颖的,另一些是文献中的)。某些背景当然是必要的。我以为读者熟悉基本的多变量计算,概率和统计以及线性代数。这本书的目标当然不是​​完整性,而是从基本知识到过去十年中极强大的新模型的直线路径或多或少。然后,目标是补充而不是替换,诸如Bishop的\ emph {模式识别和机器学习}之类的综合文本,该文本现在已经15岁了。
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Uncertainty is prevalent in engineering design, statistical learning, and decision making broadly. Due to inherent risk-averseness and ambiguity about assumptions, it is common to address uncertainty by formulating and solving conservative optimization models expressed using measure of risk and related concepts. We survey the rapid development of risk measures over the last quarter century. From its beginning in financial engineering, we recount their spread to nearly all areas of engineering and applied mathematics. Solidly rooted in convex analysis, risk measures furnish a general framework for handling uncertainty with significant computational and theoretical advantages. We describe the key facts, list several concrete algorithms, and provide an extensive list of references for further reading. The survey recalls connections with utility theory and distributionally robust optimization, points to emerging applications areas such as fair machine learning, and defines measures of reliability.
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We propose an efficient method for approximating natural gradient descent in neural networks which we call Kronecker-factored Approximate Curvature (K-FAC). K-FAC is based on an efficiently invertible approximation of a neural network's Fisher information matrix which is neither diagonal nor low-rank, and in some cases is completely non-sparse. It is derived by approximating various large blocks of the Fisher (corresponding to entire layers) as being the Kronecker product of two much smaller matrices. While only several times more expensive to compute than the plain stochastic gradient, the updates produced by K-FAC make much more progress optimizing the objective, which results in an algorithm that can be much faster than stochastic gradient descent with momentum in practice. And unlike some previously proposed approximate natural-gradient/Newton methods which use high-quality non-diagonal curvature matrices (such as Hessian-free optimization), K-FAC works very well in highly stochastic optimization regimes. This is because the cost of storing and inverting K-FAC's approximation to the curvature matrix does not depend on the amount of data used to estimate it, which is a feature typically associated only with diagonal or low-rank approximations to the curvature matrix.
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Low-rank matrix approximations, such as the truncated singular value decomposition and the rank-revealing QR decomposition, play a central role in data analysis and scientific computing. This work surveys and extends recent research which demonstrates that randomization offers a powerful tool for performing low-rank matrix approximation. These techniques exploit modern computational architectures more fully than classical methods and open the possibility of dealing with truly massive data sets.This paper presents a modular framework for constructing randomized algorithms that compute partial matrix decompositions. These methods use random sampling to identify a subspace that captures most of the action of a matrix. The input matrix is then compressed-either explicitly or implicitly-to this subspace, and the reduced matrix is manipulated deterministically to obtain the desired low-rank factorization. In many cases, this approach beats its classical competitors in terms of accuracy, speed, and robustness. These claims are supported by extensive numerical experiments and a detailed error analysis.The specific benefits of randomized techniques depend on the computational environment. Consider the model problem of finding the k dominant components of the singular value decomposition of an m × n matrix. (i) For a dense input matrix, randomized algorithms require O(mn log(k)) floating-point operations (flops) in contrast with O(mnk) for classical algorithms. (ii) For a sparse input matrix, the flop count matches classical Krylov subspace methods, but the randomized approach is more robust and can easily be reorganized to exploit multi-processor architectures. (iii) For a matrix that is too large to fit in fast memory, the randomized techniques require only a constant number of passes over the data, as opposed to O(k) passes for classical algorithms. In fact, it is sometimes possible to perform matrix approximation with a single pass over the data.
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本文评价用机器学习问题的数值优化方法。由于机器学习模型是高度参数化的,我们专注于适合高维优化的方法。我们在二次模型上构建直觉,以确定哪种方法适用于非凸优化,并在凸函数上开发用于这种方法的凸起函数。随着随机梯度下降和动量方法的这种理论基础,我们试图解释为什么机器学习领域通常使用的方法非常成功。除了解释成功的启发式之外,最后一章还提供了对更多理论方法的广泛审查,这在实践中并不像惯例。所以在某些情况下,这项工作试图回答这个问题:为什么默认值中包含的默认TensorFlow优化器?
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开发了一种使用多个辅助变量的非静止空间建模算法。它将Geodatistics与Simitile随机林结合起来,以提供一种新的插值和随机仿真算法。本文介绍了该方法,并表明它具有与施加地统计学建模和定量随机森林的那些相似的一致性结果。该方法允许嵌入更简单的插值技术,例如Kriging,以进一步调节模型。该算法通过估计每个目标位置处的目标变量的条件分布来工作。这种分布的家庭称为目标变量的包络。由此,可以获得空间估计,定量和不确定性。还开发了一种从包络产生条件模拟的算法。随着它们从信封中的样本,因此通过相对变化的次要变量,趋势和可变性的相对变化局部地影响。
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由于在数据稀缺的设置中,交叉验证的性能不佳,我们提出了一个新颖的估计器,以估计数据驱动的优化策略的样本外部性能。我们的方法利用优化问题的灵敏度分析来估计梯度关于数据中噪声量的最佳客观值,并利用估计的梯度将策略的样本中的表现为依据。与交叉验证技术不同,我们的方法避免了为测试集牺牲数据,在训练和因此非常适合数据稀缺的设置时使用所有数据。我们证明了我们估计量的偏见和方差范围,这些问题与不确定的线性目标优化问题,但已知的,可能是非凸的,可行的区域。对于更专业的优化问题,从某种意义上说,可行区域“弱耦合”,我们证明结果更强。具体而言,我们在估算器的错误上提供明确的高概率界限,该估计器在策略类别上均匀地保持,并取决于问题的维度和策略类的复杂性。我们的边界表明,在轻度条件下,随着优化问题的尺寸的增长,我们的估计器的误差也会消失,即使可用数据的量仍然很小且恒定。说不同的是,我们证明我们的估计量在小型数据中的大规模政权中表现良好。最后,我们通过数值将我们提出的方法与最先进的方法进行比较,通过使用真实数据调度紧急医疗响应服务的案例研究。我们的方法提供了更准确的样本外部性能估计,并学习了表现更好的政策。
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随机kriging已被广泛用于模拟元模拟,以预测复杂模拟模型的响应表面。但是,它的使用仅限于设计空间低维的情况,因为通常,样品复杂性(即随机Kriging生成准确预测所需的设计点数量)在设计的维度上呈指数增长。空间。大型样本量导致运行模拟模型的过度样本成本和由于需要倒入大量协方差矩阵而引起的严重计算挑战。基于张量的马尔可夫内核和稀疏的网格实验设计,我们开发了一种新颖的方法,可极大地减轻维数的诅咒。我们表明,即使在模型错误指定下,提议的方法论的样本复杂性也仅在维度上略有增长。我们还开发了快速算法,这些算法以其精确形式计算随机kriging,而无需任何近似方案。我们通过广泛的数值实验证明,我们的方法可以通过超过10,000维的设计空间来处理问题,从而通过相对于典型的替代方法在实践中通过数量级来提高预测准确性和计算效率。
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套索是一种高维回归的方法,当时,当协变量$ p $的订单数量或大于观测值$ n $时,通常使用它。由于两个基本原因,经典的渐近态性理论不适用于该模型:$(1)$正规风险是非平滑的; $(2)$估算器$ \ wideHat {\ boldsymbol {\ theta}} $与true参数vector $ \ boldsymbol {\ theta}^*$无法忽略。结果,标准的扰动论点是渐近正态性的传统基础。另一方面,套索估计器可以精确地以$ n $和$ p $大,$ n/p $的订单为一。这种表征首先是在使用I.I.D的高斯设计的情况下获得的。协变量:在这里,我们将其推广到具有非偏差协方差结构的高斯相关设计。这是根据更简单的``固定设计''模型表示的。我们在两个模型中各种数量的分布之间的距离上建立了非反应界限,它们在合适的稀疏类别中均匀地固定在信号上$ \ boldsymbol {\ theta}^*$。作为应用程序,我们研究了借助拉索的分布,并表明需要校正程度对于计算有效的置信区间是必要的。
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Function estimation/approximation is viewed from the perspective of numerical optimization in function space, rather than parameter space. A connection is made between stagewise additive expansions and steepestdescent minimization. A general gradient descent "boosting" paradigm is developed for additive expansions based on any fitting criterion. Specific algorithms are presented for least-squares, least absolute deviation, and Huber-M loss functions for regression, and multiclass logistic likelihood for classification. Special enhancements are derived for the particular case where the individual additive components are regression trees, and tools for interpreting such "TreeBoost" models are presented. Gradient boosting of regression trees produces competitive, highly robust, interpretable procedures for both regression and classification, especially appropriate for mining less than clean data. Connections between this approach and the boosting methods of Freund and Shapire and Friedman, Hastie and Tibshirani are discussed.
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我们引入了一种新的经验贝叶斯方法,用于大规模多线性回归。我们的方法结合了两个关键思想:(i)使用灵活的“自适应收缩”先验,该先验近似于正常分布的有限混合物,近似于正常分布的非参数家族; (ii)使用变分近似来有效估计先前的超参数并计算近似后期。将这两个想法结合起来,将快速,灵活的方法与计算速度相当,可与快速惩罚的回归方法(例如Lasso)相当,并在各种场景中具有出色的预测准确性。此外,我们表明,我们方法中的后验平均值可以解释为解决惩罚性回归问题,并通过直接解决优化问题(而不是通过交叉验证来调整)从数据中学到的惩罚函数的精确形式。 。我们的方法是在r https://github.com/stephenslab/mr.ash.ash.alpha的r软件包中实现的
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Outier-bubust估计是一个基本问题,已由统计学家和从业人员进行了广泛的研究。在过去的几年中,整个研究领域的融合都倾向于“算法稳定统计”,该统计数据的重点是开发可拖动的异常体 - 固定技术来解决高维估计问题。尽管存在这种融合,但跨领域的研究工作主要彼此断开。本文桥接了有关可认证的异常抗衡器估计的最新工作,该估计是机器人技术和计算机视觉中的几何感知,并在健壮的统计数据中并行工作。特别是,我们适应并扩展了最新结果对可靠的线性回归(适用于<< 50%异常值的低外壳案例)和列表可解码的回归(适用于>> 50%异常值的高淘汰案例)在机器人和视觉中通常发现的设置,其中(i)变量(例如旋转,姿势)属于非convex域,(ii)测量值是矢量值,并且(iii)未知的异常值是先验的。这里的重点是绩效保证:我们没有提出新算法,而是为投入测量提供条件,在该输入测量值下,保证现代估计算法可以在存在异常值的情况下恢复接近地面真相的估计值。这些条件是我们所谓的“估计合同”。除了现有结果的拟议扩展外,我们认为本文的主要贡献是(i)通过指出共同点和差异来统一平行的研究行,(ii)在介绍先进材料(例如,证明总和证明)中的统一行为。对从业者的可访问和独立的演讲,(iii)指出一些即时的机会和开放问题,以发出异常的几何感知。
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This work shows how to leverage causal inference to understand the behavior of complex learning systems interacting with their environment and predict the consequences of changes to the system. Such predictions allow both humans and algorithms to select the changes that would have improved the system performance. This work is illustrated by experiments on the ad placement system associated with the Bing search engine.
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最近有一项激烈的活动在嵌入非常高维和非线性数据结构的嵌入中,其中大部分在数据科学和机器学习文献中。我们分四部分调查这项活动。在第一部分中,我们涵盖了非线性方法,例如主曲线,多维缩放,局部线性方法,ISOMAP,基于图形的方法和扩散映射,基于内核的方法和随机投影。第二部分与拓扑嵌入方法有关,特别是将拓扑特性映射到持久图和映射器算法中。具有巨大增长的另一种类型的数据集是非常高维网络数据。第三部分中考虑的任务是如何将此类数据嵌入中等维度的向量空间中,以使数据适合传统技术,例如群集和分类技术。可以说,这是算法机器学习方法与统计建模(所谓的随机块建模)之间的对比度。在论文中,我们讨论了两种方法的利弊。调查的最后一部分涉及嵌入$ \ mathbb {r}^ 2 $,即可视化中。提出了三种方法:基于第一部分,第二和第三部分中的方法,$ t $ -sne,UMAP和大节。在两个模拟数据集上进行了说明和比较。一个由嘈杂的ranunculoid曲线组成的三胞胎,另一个由随机块模型和两种类型的节点产生的复杂性的网络组成。
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我们研究了回归中神经网络(NNS)的模型不确定性的方法。为了隔离模型不确定性的效果,我们专注于稀缺训练数据的无噪声环境。我们介绍了关于任何方法都应满足的模型不确定性的五个重要的逃亡者。但是,我们发现,建立的基准通常无法可靠地捕获其中一些逃避者,即使是贝叶斯理论要求的基准。为了解决这个问题,我们介绍了一种新方法来捕获NNS的模型不确定性,我们称之为基于神经优化的模型不确定性(NOMU)。 NOMU的主要思想是设计一个由两个连接的子NN组成的网络体系结构,一个用于模型预测,一个用于模型不确定性,并使用精心设计的损耗函数进行训练。重要的是,我们的设计执行NOMU满足我们的五个Desiderata。由于其模块化体系结构,NOMU可以为任何给定(先前训练)NN提供模型不确定性,如果访问其培训数据。我们在各种回归任务和无嘈杂的贝叶斯优化(BO)中评估NOMU,并具有昂贵的评估。在回归中,NOMU至少和最先进的方法。在BO中,Nomu甚至胜过所有考虑的基准。
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我们提出了一种估计具有标称分类数据的高维线性模型的方法。我们的估算器,称为范围,通过使其相应的系数完全相等来融合水平。这是通过对分类变量的系数的阶数统计之间的差异之间的差异来实现这一点,从而聚类系数。我们提供了一种算法,用于精确和有效地计算在具有潜在许多级别的单个变量的情况下的总体上的最小值的全局最小值,并且在多变量情况下在块坐标血管下降过程中使用它。我们表明,利用未知级别融合的Oracle最小二乘解决方案是具有高概率的坐标血缘的极限点,只要真正的级别具有一定的最小分离;已知这些条件在单变量案例中最小。我们展示了在一系列实际和模拟数据集中的范围的有利性能。 R包的R包Catreg实现线性模型的范围,也可以在CRAN上提供逻辑回归的版本。
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这项工作提出了一个新的程序,可以在高斯过程(GP)建模的背景下获得预测分布,并放松了一些感兴趣的范围之外的插值约束:预测分布的平均值不一定会在观察到的值时插入观察值的值。感兴趣的外部范围,但仅限于留在外面。这种称为放松的高斯工艺(REGP)插值的方法在感兴趣的范围内提供了更好的预测分布,尤其是在GP模型的平稳性假设不合适的情况下。它可以被视为一种面向目标的方法,并且在贝叶斯优化中变得特别有趣,例如,对于目标函数的最小化,低功能值的良好预测分布很重要。当将预期改进标准和REGP用于依次选择评估点时,从理论上保证了所得优化算法的收敛性(前提)。实验表明,在贝叶斯优化中使用REGP代替固定的GP模型是有益的。
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Learning curves provide insight into the dependence of a learner's generalization performance on the training set size. This important tool can be used for model selection, to predict the effect of more training data, and to reduce the computational complexity of model training and hyperparameter tuning. This review recounts the origins of the term, provides a formal definition of the learning curve, and briefly covers basics such as its estimation. Our main contribution is a comprehensive overview of the literature regarding the shape of learning curves. We discuss empirical and theoretical evidence that supports well-behaved curves that often have the shape of a power law or an exponential. We consider the learning curves of Gaussian processes, the complex shapes they can display, and the factors influencing them. We draw specific attention to examples of learning curves that are ill-behaved, showing worse learning performance with more training data. To wrap up, we point out various open problems that warrant deeper empirical and theoretical investigation. All in all, our review underscores that learning curves are surprisingly diverse and no universal model can be identified.
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