强化学习的标准制定缺乏指定禁止和禁止行为的实用方式。最常见的是,从业者通过手动工程来指定行为规范的任务,这是一个需要几个迭代的反向直观的过程,并且易于奖励代理人。在这项工作中,我们认为,几乎完全用于安全RL的受限制的RL,也有可能大大减少应用加强学习项目中奖励规范所花费的工作量。为此,我们建议在CMDP框架中指定行为偏好,并使用拉格朗日方法,该方法寻求解决代理程序的策略和拉格朗日乘法器之间的最小问题,以自动称量每个行为约束。具体而言,我们研究了如何调整CMDP,以便解决基于目标的任务,同时遵守一组行为约束,并提出对Sac-Lagrangian算法的修改以处理若干约束的具有挑战性的情况。我们对这一框架进行了一系列持续控制任务,该任务与用于视频游戏中NPC设计的加固学习应用相关。
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几乎可以肯定(或使用概率)满足安全限制对于在现实生活中的增强学习(RL)的部署至关重要。例如,理想情况下,平面降落和起飞应以概率为单位发生。我们通过引入安全增强(SAUTE)马尔可夫决策过程(MDP)来解决该问题,在该过程中,通过将其扩大到州空间并重塑目标来消除安全限制。我们表明,Saute MDP满足了Bellman方程,并使我们更加接近解决安全的RL,几乎可以肯定地满足。我们认为,Saute MDP允许从不同的角度查看安全的RL问题,从而实现新功能。例如,我们的方法具有插件的性质,即任何RL算法都可以“炒”。此外,国家扩展允许跨安全限制进行政策概括。我们最终表明,当约束满意度非常重要时,SAUTE RL算法的表现可以胜过其最先进的对应物。
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Safety comes first in many real-world applications involving autonomous agents. Despite a large number of reinforcement learning (RL) methods focusing on safety-critical tasks, there is still a lack of high-quality evaluation of those algorithms that adheres to safety constraints at each decision step under complex and unknown dynamics. In this paper, we revisit prior work in this scope from the perspective of state-wise safe RL and categorize them as projection-based, recovery-based, and optimization-based approaches, respectively. Furthermore, we propose Unrolling Safety Layer (USL), a joint method that combines safety optimization and safety projection. This novel technique explicitly enforces hard constraints via the deep unrolling architecture and enjoys structural advantages in navigating the trade-off between reward improvement and constraint satisfaction. To facilitate further research in this area, we reproduce related algorithms in a unified pipeline and incorporate them into SafeRL-Kit, a toolkit that provides off-the-shelf interfaces and evaluation utilities for safety-critical tasks. We then perform a comparative study of the involved algorithms on six benchmarks ranging from robotic control to autonomous driving. The empirical results provide an insight into their applicability and robustness in learning zero-cost-return policies without task-dependent handcrafting. The project page is available at https://sites.google.com/view/saferlkit.
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深度强化学习(RL)导致了许多最近和开创性的进步。但是,这些进步通常以培训的基础体系结构的规模增加以及用于训练它们的RL算法的复杂性提高,而均以增加规模的成本。这些增长反过来又使研究人员更难迅速原型新想法或复制已发表的RL算法。为了解决这些问题,这项工作描述了ACME,这是一个用于构建新型RL算法的框架,这些框架是专门设计的,用于启用使用简单的模块化组件构建的代理,这些组件可以在各种执行范围内使用。尽管ACME的主要目标是为算法开发提供一个框架,但第二个目标是提供重要或最先进算法的简单参考实现。这些实现既是对我们的设计决策的验证,也是对RL研究中可重复性的重要贡献。在这项工作中,我们描述了ACME内部做出的主要设计决策,并提供了有关如何使用其组件来实施各种算法的进一步详细信息。我们的实验为许多常见和最先进的算法提供了基准,并显示了如何为更大且更复杂的环境扩展这些算法。这突出了ACME的主要优点之一,即它可用于实现大型,分布式的RL算法,这些算法可以以较大的尺度运行,同时仍保持该实现的固有可读性。这项工作提出了第二篇文章的版本,恰好与模块化的增加相吻合,对离线,模仿和从演示算法学习以及作为ACME的一部分实现的各种新代理。
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A long-standing challenge in artificial intelligence is lifelong learning. In lifelong learning, many tasks are presented in sequence and learners must efficiently transfer knowledge between tasks while avoiding catastrophic forgetting over long lifetimes. On these problems, policy reuse and other multi-policy reinforcement learning techniques can learn many tasks. However, they can generate many temporary or permanent policies, resulting in memory issues. Consequently, there is a need for lifetime-scalable methods that continually refine a policy library of a pre-defined size. This paper presents a first approach to lifetime-scalable policy reuse. To pre-select the number of policies, a notion of task capacity, the maximal number of tasks that a policy can accurately solve, is proposed. To evaluate lifetime policy reuse using this method, two state-of-the-art single-actor base-learners are compared: 1) a value-based reinforcement learner, Deep Q-Network (DQN) or Deep Recurrent Q-Network (DRQN); and 2) an actor-critic reinforcement learner, Proximal Policy Optimisation (PPO) with or without Long Short-Term Memory layer. By selecting the number of policies based on task capacity, D(R)QN achieves near-optimal performance with 6 policies in a 27-task MDP domain and 9 policies in an 18-task POMDP domain; with fewer policies, catastrophic forgetting and negative transfer are observed. Due to slow, monotonic improvement, PPO requires fewer policies, 1 policy for the 27-task domain and 4 policies for the 18-task domain, but it learns the tasks with lower accuracy than D(R)QN. These findings validate lifetime-scalable policy reuse and suggest using D(R)QN for larger and PPO for smaller library sizes.
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Adequately assigning credit to actions for future outcomes based on their contributions is a long-standing open challenge in Reinforcement Learning. The assumptions of the most commonly used credit assignment method are disadvantageous in tasks where the effects of decisions are not immediately evident. Furthermore, this method can only evaluate actions that have been selected by the agent, making it highly inefficient. Still, no alternative methods have been widely adopted in the field. Hindsight Credit Assignment is a promising, but still unexplored candidate, which aims to solve the problems of both long-term and counterfactual credit assignment. In this thesis, we empirically investigate Hindsight Credit Assignment to identify its main benefits, and key points to improve. Then, we apply it to factored state representations, and in particular to state representations based on the causal structure of the environment. In this setting, we propose a variant of Hindsight Credit Assignment that effectively exploits a given causal structure. We show that our modification greatly decreases the workload of Hindsight Credit Assignment, making it more efficient and enabling it to outperform the baseline credit assignment method on various tasks. This opens the way to other methods based on given or learned causal structures.
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资产分配(或投资组合管理)是确定如何最佳将有限预算的资金分配给一系列金融工具/资产(例如股票)的任务。这项研究调查了使用无模型的深RL代理应用于投资组合管理的增强学习(RL)的性能。我们培训了几个RL代理商的现实股票价格,以学习如何执行资产分配。我们比较了这些RL剂与某些基线剂的性能。我们还比较了RL代理,以了解哪些类别的代理表现更好。从我们的分析中,RL代理可以执行投资组合管理的任务,因为它们的表现明显优于基线代理(随机分配和均匀分配)。四个RL代理(A2C,SAC,PPO和TRPO)总体上优于最佳基线MPT。这显示了RL代理商发现更有利可图的交易策略的能力。此外,基于价值和基于策略的RL代理之间没有显着的性能差异。演员批评者的表现比其他类型的药物更好。同样,在政策代理商方面的表现要好,因为它们在政策评估方面更好,样品效率在投资组合管理中并不是一个重大问题。这项研究表明,RL代理可以大大改善资产分配,因为它们的表现优于强基础。基于我们的分析,在政策上,参与者批评的RL药物显示出最大的希望。
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机器学习算法中多个超参数的最佳设置是发出大多数可用数据的关键。为此目的,已经提出了几种方法,例如进化策略,随机搜索,贝叶斯优化和启发式拇指规则。在钢筋学习(RL)中,学习代理在与其环境交互时收集的数据的信息内容严重依赖于许多超参数的设置。因此,RL算法的用户必须依赖于基于搜索的优化方法,例如网格搜索或Nelder-Mead单简单算法,这对于大多数R1任务来说是非常效率的,显着减慢学习曲线和离开用户的速度有目的地偏见数据收集的负担。在这项工作中,为了使RL算法更加用户独立,提出了一种使用贝叶斯优化的自主超参数设置的新方法。来自过去剧集和不同的超参数值的数据通过执行行为克隆在元学习水平上使用,这有助于提高最大化获取功能的加强学习变体的有效性。此外,通过紧密地整合在加强学习代理设计中的贝叶斯优化,还减少了收敛到给定任务的最佳策略所需的状态转换的数量。与其他手动调整和基于优化的方法相比,计算实验显示了有希望的结果,这突出了改变算法超级参数来增加所生成数据的信息内容的好处。
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设计加固学习(RL)代理通常是一个艰难的过程,需要大量的设计迭代。由于多种原因,学习可能会失败,并且标准RL方法提供的工具太少,无法洞悉确切原因。在本文中,我们展示了如何将价值分解整合到一类广泛的参与者批评算法中,并使用它来协助迭代代理设计过程。价值分解将奖励函数分为不同的组件,并学习每个组件的价值估计值。这些价值估计提供了对代理商的学习和决策过程的见解,并使新的培训方法可以减轻常见问题。作为演示,我们介绍了SAC-D,这是一种适合价值分解的软角色批评(SAC)的变体。 SAC-D保持与SAC相似的性能,同时学习一组更大的价值预测。我们还介绍了基于分解的工具来利用此信息,包括新的奖励影响指标,该指标衡量了每个奖励组件对代理决策的影响。使用这些工具,我们提供了分解用于识别和解决环境和代理设计问题的几种证明。价值分解广泛适用,易于将其纳入现有算法和工作流程中,使其成为RL从业人员的工具箱中的强大工具。
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标准深度强化学习(DRL)旨在考虑收集的经验在制定政策方面的经验,旨在最大程度地提高预期奖励。这与人类决策不同,在人类的决策中,收益和损失的重视程度有所不同,而外围的结果被越来越多。它也无法利用通过合并分配环境来提高安全性和/或绩效的机会。已经研究了几种分配DRL的方法,其中一种流行的策略是评估预计的可能行动收益分配。我们提出了一种更直接的方法,通过优化了根据全剧集奖励的分布累积分布函数(CDF)指定的风险敏感目标。这种方法允许根据相对质量权衡结果,可用于连续和离散的动作空间,并且自然可以在约束和不受约束的设置中应用。我们展示了如何通过抽样来计算广泛的风险敏感目标的政策梯度的渐近一致估计,随后纳入了降低方差和正则化措施,以促进有效的实质性学习。然后,我们证明使用中等“悲观”的风险概况,强调了代理商表现不佳的场景,从而导致了增强的探索,并不断地专注于解决缺陷。我们在六个OpenAI安全健身房环境中使用不同的风险概况测试了该方法,与最先进的政策方法相比。没有成本限制,我们发现悲观的风险概况可用于降低成本,同时改善总奖励积累。借助成本限制,他们可以以规定的允许成本提供比风险中立的方法更高的积极奖励。
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尽管深度强化学习(RL)最近取得了许多成功,但其方法仍然效率低下,这使得在数据方面解决了昂贵的许多问题。我们的目标是通过利用未标记的数据中的丰富监督信号来进行学习状态表示,以解决这一问题。本文介绍了三种不同的表示算法,可以访问传统RL算法使用的数据源的不同子集使用:(i)GRICA受到独立组件分析(ICA)的启发,并训练深层神经网络以输出统计独立的独立特征。输入。 Grica通过最大程度地减少每个功能与其他功能之间的相互信息来做到这一点。此外,格里卡仅需要未分类的环境状态。 (ii)潜在表示预测(LARP)还需要更多的上下文:除了要求状态作为输入外,它还需要先前的状态和连接它们的动作。该方法通过预测当前状态和行动的环境的下一个状态来学习状态表示。预测器与图形搜索算法一起使用。 (iii)重新培训通过训练深层神经网络来学习国家表示,以学习奖励功能的平滑版本。该表示形式用于预处理输入到深度RL,而奖励预测指标用于奖励成型。此方法仅需要环境中的状态奖励对学习表示表示。我们发现,每种方法都有其优势和缺点,并从我们的实验中得出结论,包括无监督的代表性学习在RL解决问题的管道中可以加快学习的速度。
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安全的加强学习(RL)旨在学习在将其部署到关键安全应用程序中之前满足某些约束的政策。以前的原始双重风格方法遭受了不稳定性问题的困扰,并且缺乏最佳保证。本文从概率推断的角度克服了问题。我们在政策学习过程中介绍了一种新颖的期望最大化方法来自然纳入约束:1)在凸优化(E-step)后,可以以封闭形式计算可证明的最佳非参数变异分布; 2)基于最佳变异分布(M-step),在信任区域内改进了策略参数。提出的算法将安全的RL问题分解为凸优化阶段和监督学习阶段,从而产生了更稳定的培训性能。对连续机器人任务进行的广泛实验表明,所提出的方法比基线获得了更好的约束满意度和更好的样品效率。该代码可在https://github.com/liuzuxin/cvpo-safe-rl上找到。
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我们开发了一种新的持续元学习方法,以解决连续多任务学习中的挑战。在此设置中,代理商的目标是快速通过任何任务序列实现高奖励。先前的Meta-Creenifiltive学习算法已经表现出有希望加速收购新任务的结果。但是,他们需要在培训期间访问所有任务。除了简单地将过去的经验转移到新任务,我们的目标是设计学习学习的持续加强学习算法,使用他们以前任务的经验更快地学习新任务。我们介绍了一种新的方法,连续的元策略搜索(Comps),通过以增量方式,在序列中的每个任务上,通过序列的每个任务来消除此限制,而无需重新访问先前的任务。 Comps持续重复两个子程序:使用RL学习新任务,并使用RL的经验完全离线Meta学习,为后续任务学习做好准备。我们发现,在若干挑战性连续控制任务的旧序列上,Comps优于持续的持续学习和非政策元增强方法。
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随着我们日常环境中机器人的存在越来越多,提高社交技能至关重要。尽管如此,社会机器人技术仍然面临许多挑战。一种瓶颈是,由于社会规范的强烈取决于环境,因此需要经常适应机器人行为。例如,与办公室的工人相比,机器人应更仔细地在医院的患者周围进行仔细的导航。在这项工作中,我们将元强化学习(META-RL)作为潜在解决方案进行了研究。在这里,机器人行为是通过强化学习来学习的,需要选择奖励功能,以便机器人学习适合给定环境的行为。我们建议使用一种变异元过程,该过程迅速使机器人的行为适应新的奖励功能。结果,给定一个新的环境,可以快速评估不同的奖励功能,并选择适当的奖励功能。该过程学习奖励函数的矢量表示和可以在这种表示形式下进行条件的元政策。从新的奖励函数中进行观察,该过程确定了其表示形式,并条件元元素对其进行了条件。在研究程序的功能时,我们意识到它遭受了后塌陷的困扰,在表示表示中只有一个尺寸的子集编码有用的信息,从而导致性能降低。我们的第二个贡献是径向基函数(RBF)层,部分减轻了这种负面影响。 RBF层将表示形式提升到较高的维空间,这对于元容器更容易利用。我们证明了RBF层的兴趣以及在四个机器人模拟任务上对社会机器人技术的使用元素使用。
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本文解决了当参与需求响应(DR)时优化电动汽车(EV)的充电/排放时间表的问题。由于电动汽车的剩余能量,到达和出发时间以及未来的电价中存在不确定性,因此很难做出充电决定以最大程度地减少充电成本,同时保证电动汽车的电池最先进(SOC)在内某些范围。为了解决这一难题,本文将EV充电调度问题制定为Markov决策过程(CMDP)。通过协同结合增强的Lagrangian方法和软演员评论家算法,本文提出了一种新型安全的非政策钢筋学习方法(RL)方法来解决CMDP。通过Lagrangian值函数以策略梯度方式更新Actor网络。采用双重危机网络来同步估计动作值函数,以避免高估偏差。所提出的算法不需要强烈的凸度保证,可以保证被检查的问题,并且是有效的样本。现实世界中电价的全面数值实验表明,我们提出的算法可以实现高解决方案最佳性和约束依从性。
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安全探索是强化学习(RL)的常见问题,旨在防止代理在探索环境时做出灾难性的决定。一个解决这个问题的方法家庭以这种环境的(部分)模型的形式假设域知识,以决定动作的安全性。所谓的盾牌迫使RL代理只选择安全的动作。但是,要在各种应用中采用,必须超越执行安全性,还必须确保RL的适用性良好。我们通过与最先进的深度RL的紧密整合扩展了盾牌的适用性,并在部分可观察性下提供了充满挑战的,稀疏的奖励环境中的广泛实证研究。我们表明,经过精心整合的盾牌可确保安全性,并可以提高RL代理的收敛速度和最终性能。我们此外表明,可以使用盾牌来引导最先进的RL代理:它们在屏蔽环境中初步学习后保持安全,从而使我们最终可以禁用潜在的过于保守的盾牌。
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Model-free deep reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms have been demonstrated on a range of challenging decision making and control tasks. However, these methods typically suffer from two major challenges: very high sample complexity and brittle convergence properties, which necessitate meticulous hyperparameter tuning. Both of these challenges severely limit the applicability of such methods to complex, real-world domains. In this paper, we propose soft actor-critic, an offpolicy actor-critic deep RL algorithm based on the maximum entropy reinforcement learning framework. In this framework, the actor aims to maximize expected reward while also maximizing entropy. That is, to succeed at the task while acting as randomly as possible. Prior deep RL methods based on this framework have been formulated as Q-learning methods. By combining off-policy updates with a stable stochastic actor-critic formulation, our method achieves state-of-the-art performance on a range of continuous control benchmark tasks, outperforming prior on-policy and off-policy methods. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, in contrast to other off-policy algorithms, our approach is very stable, achieving very similar performance across different random seeds.
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In this work we introduce reinforcement learning techniques for solving lexicographic multi-objective problems. These are problems that involve multiple reward signals, and where the goal is to learn a policy that maximises the first reward signal, and subject to this constraint also maximises the second reward signal, and so on. We present a family of both action-value and policy gradient algorithms that can be used to solve such problems, and prove that they converge to policies that are lexicographically optimal. We evaluate the scalability and performance of these algorithms empirically, demonstrating their practical applicability. As a more specific application, we show how our algorithms can be used to impose safety constraints on the behaviour of an agent, and compare their performance in this context with that of other constrained reinforcement learning algorithms.
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Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) algorithms have been demonstrated to perform well on high-dimensional decision making and robotic control tasks. However, because they solely optimize for rewards, the agent tends to search the same space redundantly. This problem reduces the speed of learning and achieved reward. In this work, we present an Off-Policy HRL algorithm that maximizes entropy for efficient exploration. The algorithm learns a temporally abstracted low-level policy and is able to explore broadly through the addition of entropy to the high-level. The novelty of this work is the theoretical motivation of adding entropy to the RL objective in the HRL setting. We empirically show that the entropy can be added to both levels if the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence between consecutive updates of the low-level policy is sufficiently small. We performed an ablative study to analyze the effects of entropy on hierarchy, in which adding entropy to high-level emerged as the most desirable configuration. Furthermore, a higher temperature in the low-level leads to Q-value overestimation and increases the stochasticity of the environment that the high-level operates on, making learning more challenging. Our method, SHIRO, surpasses state-of-the-art performance on a range of simulated robotic control benchmark tasks and requires minimal tuning.
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Reinforcement learning in partially observable domains is challenging due to the lack of observable state information. Thankfully, learning offline in a simulator with such state information is often possible. In particular, we propose a method for partially observable reinforcement learning that uses a fully observable policy (which we call a state expert) during offline training to improve online performance. Based on Soft Actor-Critic (SAC), our agent balances performing actions similar to the state expert and getting high returns under partial observability. Our approach can leverage the fully-observable policy for exploration and parts of the domain that are fully observable while still being able to learn under partial observability. On six robotics domains, our method outperforms pure imitation, pure reinforcement learning, the sequential or parallel combination of both types, and a recent state-of-the-art method in the same setting. A successful policy transfer to a physical robot in a manipulation task from pixels shows our approach's practicality in learning interesting policies under partial observability.
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