Deep reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved several high profile successes in difficult decision-making problems. However, these algorithms typically require a huge amount of data before they reach reasonable performance. In fact, their performance during learning can be extremely poor. This may be acceptable for a simulator, but it severely limits the applicability of deep RL to many real-world tasks, where the agent must learn in the real environment. In this paper we study a setting where the agent may access data from previous control of the system. We present an algorithm, Deep Q-learning from Demonstrations (DQfD), that leverages small sets of demonstration data to massively accelerate the learning process even from relatively small amounts of demonstration data and is able to automatically assess the necessary ratio of demonstration data while learning thanks to a prioritized replay mechanism. DQfD works by combining temporal difference updates with supervised classification of the demonstrator's actions. We show that DQfD has better initial performance than Prioritized Dueling Double Deep Q-Networks (PDD DQN) as it starts with better scores on the first million steps on 41 of 42 games and on average it takes PDD DQN 83 million steps to catch up to DQfD's performance. DQfD learns to out-perform the best demonstration given in 14 of 42 games. In addition, DQfD leverages human demonstrations to achieve state-of-the-art results for 11 games. Finally, we show that DQfD performs better than three related algorithms for incorporating demonstration data into DQN.

The deep reinforcement learning community has made several independent improvements to the DQN algorithm. However, it is unclear which of these extensions are complementary and can be fruitfully combined. This paper examines six extensions to the DQN algorithm and empirically studies their combination. Our experiments show that the combination provides state-of-the-art performance on the Atari 2600 benchmark, both in terms of data efficiency and final performance. We also provide results from a detailed ablation study that shows the contribution of each component to overall performance.

We present the first deep learning model to successfully learn control policies directly from high-dimensional sensory input using reinforcement learning. The model is a convolutional neural network, trained with a variant of Q-learning, whose input is raw pixels and whose output is a value function estimating future rewards. We apply our method to seven Atari 2600 games from the Arcade Learning Environment, with no adjustment of the architecture or learning algorithm. We find that it outperforms all previous approaches on six of the games and surpasses a human expert on three of them.

In recent years there have been many successes of using deep representations in reinforcement learning. Still, many of these applications use conventional architectures, such as convolutional networks, LSTMs, or auto-encoders. In this paper, we present a new neural network architecture for model-free reinforcement learning. Our dueling network represents two separate estimators: one for the state value function and one for the state-dependent action advantage function. The main benefit of this factoring is to generalize learning across actions without imposing any change to the underlying reinforcement learning algorithm. Our results show that this architecture leads to better policy evaluation in the presence of many similar-valued actions. Moreover, the dueling architecture enables our RL agent to outperform the state-of-the-art on the Atari 2600 domain.

Off-policy reinforcement learning (RL) using a fixed offline dataset of logged interactions is an important consideration in real world applications. This paper studies offline RL using the DQN Replay Dataset comprising the entire replay experience of a DQN agent on 60 Atari 2600 games. We demonstrate that recent off-policy deep RL algorithms, even when trained solely on this fixed dataset, outperform the fully-trained DQN agent. To enhance generalization in the offline setting, we present Random Ensemble Mixture (REM), a robust Q-learning algorithm that enforces optimal Bellman consistency on random convex combinations of multiple Q-value estimates. Offline REM trained on the DQN Replay Dataset surpasses strong RL baselines. Ablation studies highlight the role of offline dataset size and diversity as well as the algorithm choice in our positive results. Overall, the results here present an optimistic view that robust RL algorithms used on sufficiently large and diverse offline datasets can lead to high quality policies. To provide a testbed for offline RL and reproduce our results, the DQN Replay Dataset is released at offline-rl.github.io.

大多数强化学习算法都利用了经验重播缓冲液，以反复对代理商过去观察到的样本进行训练。这样可以防止灾难性的遗忘，但是仅仅对每个样本都分配了同等的重要性是一种天真的策略。在本文中，我们提出了一种根据样本可以从样本中学到多少样本确定样本优先级的方法。我们将样本的学习能力定义为随着时间的推移，与该样品相关的训练损失的稳定减少。我们开发了一种算法，以优先考虑具有较高学习能力的样本，同时将优先级较低，为那些难以学习的样本，通常是由噪声或随机性引起的。我们从经验上表明，我们的方法比随机抽样更强大，而且比仅在训练损失方面优先排序更好，即时间差损失，这是在香草优先的经验重播中使用的。

如何在演示相对较大时更加普遍地进行模仿学习一直是强化学习（RL）的持续存在问题。糟糕的示威活动导致狭窄和偏见的日期分布，非马洛维亚人类专家演示使代理商难以学习，而过度依赖子最优轨迹可以使代理商努力提高其性能。为了解决这些问题，我们提出了一种名为TD3FG的新算法，可以平稳地过渡从专家到学习从经验中学习。我们的算法在Mujoco环境中实现了有限的有限和次优的演示。我们使用行为克隆来将网络作为参考动作发生器训练，并在丢失函数和勘探噪声方面使用它。这种创新可以帮助代理商从示威活动中提取先验知识，同时降低了糟糕的马尔科维亚特性的公正的不利影响。与BC +微调和DDPGFD方法相比，它具有更好的性能，特别是当示范相对有限时。我们调用我们的方法TD3FG意味着来自发电机的TD3。

深度强化学习（RL）导致了许多最近和开创性的进步。但是，这些进步通常以培训的基础体系结构的规模增加以及用于训练它们的RL算法的复杂性提高，而均以增加规模的成本。这些增长反过来又使研究人员更难迅速原型新想法或复制已发表的RL算法。为了解决这些问题，这项工作描述了ACME，这是一个用于构建新型RL算法的框架，这些框架是专门设计的，用于启用使用简单的模块化组件构建的代理，这些组件可以在各种执行范围内使用。尽管ACME的主要目标是为算法开发提供一个框架，但第二个目标是提供重要或最先进算法的简单参考实现。这些实现既是对我们的设计决策的验证，也是对RL研究中可重复性的重要贡献。在这项工作中，我们描述了ACME内部做出的主要设计决策，并提供了有关如何使用其组件来实施各种算法的进一步详细信息。我们的实验为许多常见和最先进的算法提供了基准，并显示了如何为更大且更复杂的环境扩展这些算法。这突出了ACME的主要优点之一，即它可用于实现大型，分布式的RL算法，这些算法可以以较大的尺度运行，同时仍保持该实现的固有可读性。这项工作提出了第二篇文章的版本，恰好与模块化的增加相吻合，对离线，模仿和从演示算法学习以及作为ACME的一部分实现的各种新代理。

With the development of deep representation learning, the domain of reinforcement learning (RL) has become a powerful learning framework now capable of learning complex policies in high dimensional environments. This review summarises deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms and provides a taxonomy of automated driving tasks where (D)RL methods have been employed, while addressing key computational challenges in real world deployment of autonomous driving agents. It also delineates adjacent domains such as behavior cloning, imitation learning, inverse reinforcement learning that are related but are not classical RL algorithms. The role of simulators in training agents, methods to validate, test and robustify existing solutions in RL are discussed.

在现实世界中学习机器人任务仍然是高度挑战性的，有效的实用解决方案仍有待发现。在该领域使用的传统方法是模仿学习和强化学习，但是当应用于真正的机器人时，它们都有局限性。将强化学习与预先收集的演示结合在一起是一种有前途的方法，可以帮助学习控制机器人任务的控制政策。在本文中，我们提出了一种使用新技术来利用离线和在线培训来利用离线专家数据的算法，以获得更快的收敛性和提高性能。拟议的算法（AWET）用新颖的代理优势权重对批评损失进行了加权，以改善专家数据。此外，AWET利用自动的早期终止技术来停止和丢弃与专家轨迹不同的策略推出 - 以防止脱离专家数据。在一项消融研究中，与在四个标准机器人任务上的最新基线相比，AWET表现出改善和有希望的表现。

在探索中，由于当前的低效率而引起的强化学习领域，具有较大动作空间的学习控制政策是一个具有挑战性的问题。在这项工作中，我们介绍了深入的强化学习（DRL）算法呼叫多动作网络（MAN）学习，以应对大型离散动作空间的挑战。我们建议将动作空间分为两个组件，从而为每个子行动创建一个值神经网络。然后，人使用时间差异学习来同步训练网络，这比训练直接动作输出的单个网络要简单。为了评估所提出的方法，我们在块堆叠任务上测试了人，然后扩展了人类从Atari Arcade学习环境中使用18个动作空间的12个游戏。我们的结果表明，人的学习速度比深Q学习和双重Q学习更快，这意味着我们的方法比当前可用于大型动作空间的方法更好地执行同步时间差异算法。

Atari games have been a long-standing benchmark in the reinforcement learning (RL) community for the past decade. This benchmark was proposed to test general competency of RL algorithms. Previous work has achieved good average performance by doing outstandingly well on many games of the set, but very poorly in several of the most challenging games. We propose Agent57, the first deep RL agent that outperforms the standard human benchmark on all 57 Atari games. To achieve this result, we train a neural network which parameterizes a family of policies ranging from very exploratory to purely exploitative. We propose an adaptive mechanism to choose which policy to prioritize throughout the training process. Additionally, we utilize a novel parameterization of the architecture that allows for more consistent and stable learning.

Deep reinforcement learning is poised to revolutionise the field of AI and represents a step towards building autonomous systems with a higher level understanding of the visual world. Currently, deep learning is enabling reinforcement learning to scale to problems that were previously intractable, such as learning to play video games directly from pixels. Deep reinforcement learning algorithms are also applied to robotics, allowing control policies for robots to be learned directly from camera inputs in the real world. In this survey, we begin with an introduction to the general field of reinforcement learning, then progress to the main streams of value-based and policybased methods. Our survey will cover central algorithms in deep reinforcement learning, including the deep Q-network, trust region policy optimisation, and asynchronous advantage actor-critic. In parallel, we highlight the unique advantages of deep neural networks, focusing on visual understanding via reinforcement learning. To conclude, we describe several current areas of research within the field.

Experience replay lets online reinforcement learning agents remember and reuse experiences from the past. In prior work, experience transitions were uniformly sampled from a replay memory. However, this approach simply replays transitions at the same frequency that they were originally experienced, regardless of their significance. In this paper we develop a framework for prioritizing experience, so as to replay important transitions more frequently, and therefore learn more efficiently. We use prioritized experience replay in Deep Q-Networks (DQN), a reinforcement learning algorithm that achieved human-level performance across many Atari games. DQN with prioritized experience replay achieves a new stateof-the-art, outperforming DQN with uniform replay on 41 out of 49 games.

Deep reinforcement learning algorithms have succeeded in several challenging domains. Classic Online RL job schedulers can learn efficient scheduling strategies but often takes thousands of timesteps to explore the environment and adapt from a randomly initialized DNN policy. Existing RL schedulers overlook the importance of learning from historical data and improving upon custom heuristic policies. Offline reinforcement learning presents the prospect of policy optimization from pre-recorded datasets without online environment interaction. Following the recent success of data-driven learning, we explore two RL methods: 1) Behaviour Cloning and 2) Offline RL, which aim to learn policies from logged data without interacting with the environment. These methods address the challenges concerning the cost of data collection and safety, particularly pertinent to real-world applications of RL. Although the data-driven RL methods generate good results, we show that the performance is highly dependent on the quality of the historical datasets. Finally, we demonstrate that by effectively incorporating prior expert demonstrations to pre-train the agent, we short-circuit the random exploration phase to learn a reasonable policy with online training. We utilize Offline RL as a \textbf{launchpad} to learn effective scheduling policies from prior experience collected using Oracle or heuristic policies. Such a framework is effective for pre-training from historical datasets and well suited to continuous improvement with online data collection.

在过去的十年中，多智能经纪人强化学习（Marl）已经有了重大进展，但仍存在许多挑战，例如高样本复杂性和慢趋同稳定的政策，在广泛的部署之前需要克服，这是可能的。然而，在实践中，许多现实世界的环境已经部署了用于生成策略的次优或启发式方法。一个有趣的问题是如何最好地使用这些方法作为顾问，以帮助改善多代理领域的加强学习。在本文中，我们提供了一个原则的框架，用于将动作建议纳入多代理设置中的在线次优顾问。我们描述了在非传记通用随机游戏环境中提供多种智能强化代理（海军上将）的问题，并提出了两种新的基于Q学习的算法：海军上将决策（海军DM）和海军上将 - 顾问评估（Admiral-AE） ，这使我们能够通过适当地纳入顾问（Admiral-DM）的建议来改善学习，并评估顾问（Admiral-AE）的有效性。我们从理论上分析了算法，并在一般加上随机游戏中提供了关于他们学习的定点保证。此外，广泛的实验说明了这些算法：可以在各种环境中使用，具有对其他相关基线的有利相比的性能，可以扩展到大状态行动空间，并且对来自顾问的不良建议具有稳健性。

自成立以来，建立在广泛任务中表现出色的普通代理的任务一直是强化学习的重要目标。这个问题一直是对Alarge工作体系的研究的主题，并且经常通过观察Atari 57基准中包含的广泛范围环境的分数来衡量的性能。 Agent57是所有57场比赛中第一个超过人类基准的代理商，但这是以数据效率差的代价，需要实现近800亿帧的经验。以Agent57为起点，我们采用了各种各样的形式，以降低超过人类基线所需的经验200倍。在减少数据制度和Propose有效的解决方案时，我们遇到了一系列不稳定性和瓶颈，以构建更强大，更有效的代理。我们还使用诸如Muesli和Muzero之类的高性能方法证明了竞争性的性能。 TOOUR方法的四个关键组成部分是（1）近似信任区域方法，该方法可以从TheOnline网络中稳定引导，（2）损失和优先级的归一化方案，在学习具有广泛量表的一组值函数时，可以提高鲁棒性， （3）改进的体系结构采用了NFNET的技术技术来利用更深的网络而无需标准化层，并且（4）政策蒸馏方法可使瞬时贪婪的策略加班。

在时间差异增强学习算法中，价值估计的差异会导致最大目标值的不稳定性和高估。已经提出了许多算法来减少高估，包括最近的几种集合方法，但是，没有通过解决估计方差作为高估的根本原因来表现出样品效率学习的成功。在本文中，我们提出了一种简单的集合方法，将目标值估计为集合均值。尽管它很简单，但卑鄙的（还是在Atari学习环境基准测试的实验中显示出明显的样本效率）。重要的是，我们发现大小5的合奏充分降低了估计方差以消除滞后目标网络，从而消除了它作为偏见的来源并进一步获得样本效率。我们以直观和经验的方式为曲线的设计选择证明了合理性，包括独立经验抽样的必要性。在一组26个基准ATARI环境中，曲线均优于所有经过测试的基线，包括最佳的基线，日出，在16/26环境中的100K交互步骤，平均为68​​％。在21/26的环境中，曲线还优于500k步骤的Rainbow DQN，平均为49％，并使用200K（$ \ pm $ 100k）的交互步骤实现平均人级绩效。我们的实施可从https://github.com/indylab/meanq获得。

机器学习算法中多个超参数的最佳设置是发出大多数可用数据的关键。为此目的，已经提出了几种方法，例如进化策略，随机搜索，贝叶斯优化和启发式拇指规则。在钢筋学习（RL）中，学习代理在与其环境交互时收集的数据的信息内容严重依赖于许多超参数的设置。因此，RL算法的用户必须依赖于基于搜索的优化方法，例如网格搜索或Nelder-Mead单简单算法，这对于大多数R1任务来说是非常效率的，显着减慢学习曲线和离开用户的速度有目的地偏见数据收集的负担。在这项工作中，为了使RL算法更加用户独立，提出了一种使用贝叶斯优化的自主超参数设置的新方法。来自过去剧集和不同的超参数值的数据通过执行行为克隆在元学习水平上使用，这有助于提高最大化获取功能的加强学习变体的有效性。此外，通过紧密地整合在加强学习代理设计中的贝叶斯优化，还减少了收敛到给定任务的最佳策略所需的状态转换的数量。与其他手动调整和基于优化的方法相比，计算实验显示了有希望的结果，这突出了改变算法超级参数来增加所生成数据的信息内容的好处。