The explosive growth of dynamic and heterogeneous data traffic brings great challenges for 5G and beyond mobile networks. To enhance the network capacity and reliability, we propose a learning-based dynamic time-frequency division duplexing (D-TFDD) scheme that adaptively allocates the uplink and downlink time-frequency resources of base stations (BSs) to meet the asymmetric and heterogeneous traffic demands while alleviating the inter-cell interference. We formulate the problem as a decentralized partially observable Markov decision process (Dec-POMDP) that maximizes the long-term expected sum rate under the users' packet dropping ratio constraints. In order to jointly optimize the global resources in a decentralized manner, we propose a federated reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm named federated Wolpertinger deep deterministic policy gradient (FWDDPG) algorithm. The BSs decide their local time-frequency configurations through RL algorithms and achieve global training via exchanging local RL models with their neighbors under a decentralized federated learning framework. Specifically, to deal with the large-scale discrete action space of each BS, we adopt a DDPG-based algorithm to generate actions in a continuous space, and then utilize Wolpertinger policy to reduce the mapping errors from continuous action space back to discrete action space. Simulation results demonstrate the superiority of our proposed algorithm to benchmark algorithms with respect to system sum rate.

未来的互联网涉及几种新兴技术，例如5G和5G网络，车辆网络，无人机（UAV）网络和物联网（IOT）。此外，未来的互联网变得异质并分散了许多相关网络实体。每个实体可能需要做出本地决定，以在动态和不确定的网络环境下改善网络性能。最近使用标准学习算法，例如单药强化学习（RL）或深入强化学习（DRL），以使每个网络实体作为代理人通过与未知环境进行互动来自适应地学习最佳决策策略。但是，这种算法未能对网络实体之间的合作或竞争进行建模，而只是将其他实体视为可能导致非平稳性问题的环境的一部分。多机构增强学习（MARL）允许每个网络实体不仅观察环境，还可以观察其他实体的政策来学习其最佳政策。结果，MAL可以显着提高网络实体的学习效率，并且最近已用于解决新兴网络中的各种问题。在本文中，我们因此回顾了MAL在新兴网络中的应用。特别是，我们提供了MARL的教程，以及对MARL在下一代互联网中的应用进行全面调查。特别是，我们首先介绍单代机Agent RL和MARL。然后，我们回顾了MAL在未来互联网中解决新兴问题的许多应用程序。这些问题包括网络访问，传输电源控制，计算卸载，内容缓存，数据包路由，无人机网络的轨迹设计以及网络安全问题。

In heterogeneous networks (HetNets), the overlap of small cells and the macro cell causes severe cross-tier interference. Although there exist some approaches to address this problem, they usually require global channel state information, which is hard to obtain in practice, and get the sub-optimal power allocation policy with high computational complexity. To overcome these limitations, we propose a multi-agent deep reinforcement learning (MADRL) based power control scheme for the HetNet, where each access point makes power control decisions independently based on local information. To promote cooperation among agents, we develop a penalty-based Q learning (PQL) algorithm for MADRL systems. By introducing regularization terms in the loss function, each agent tends to choose an experienced action with high reward when revisiting a state, and thus the policy updating speed slows down. In this way, an agent's policy can be learned by other agents more easily, resulting in a more efficient collaboration process. We then implement the proposed PQL in the considered HetNet and compare it with other distributed-training-and-execution (DTE) algorithms. Simulation results show that our proposed PQL can learn the desired power control policy from a dynamic environment where the locations of users change episodically and outperform existing DTE MADRL algorithms.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms are considered as a promising technique for next-generation communication networks due to their flexibility, mobility, low cost, and the ability to collaboratively and autonomously provide services. Distributed learning (DL) enables UAV swarms to intelligently provide communication services, multi-directional remote surveillance, and target tracking. In this survey, we first introduce several popular DL algorithms such as federated learning (FL), multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL), distributed inference, and split learning, and present a comprehensive overview of their applications for UAV swarms, such as trajectory design, power control, wireless resource allocation, user assignment, perception, and satellite communications. Then, we present several state-of-the-art applications of UAV swarms in wireless communication systems, such us reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS), virtual reality (VR), semantic communications, and discuss the problems and challenges that DL-enabled UAV swarms can solve in these applications. Finally, we describe open problems of using DL in UAV swarms and future research directions of DL enabled UAV swarms. In summary, this survey provides a comprehensive survey of various DL applications for UAV swarms in extensive scenarios.

预计下一代（NEVERG）网络将支持苛刻的触觉互联网应用，例如增强现实和连接的自动车辆。虽然最近的创新带来了更大的联系能力的承诺，它们对环境的敏感性以及不稳定的性能无视基于传统的基于模型的控制理由。零触摸数据驱动的方法可以提高网络适应当前操作条件的能力。诸如强化学习（RL）算法等工具可以仅基于观察历史来构建最佳控制策略。具体而言，使用深神经网络（DNN）作为预测器的深RL（DRL）已经被示出，即使在复杂的环境和高维输入中也能够实现良好的性能。但是，DRL模型的培训需要大量数据，这可能会限制其对潜在环境的不断发展统计数据的适应性。此外，无线网络是固有的分布式系统，其中集中式DRL方法需要过多的数据交换，而完全分布的方法可能导致较慢的收敛速率和性能下降。在本文中，为了解决这些挑战，我们向DRL提出了联合学习（FL）方法，我们指的是联邦DRL（F-DRL），其中基站（BS）通过仅共享模型的重量协作培训嵌入式DNN而不是训练数据。我们评估了两个不同版本的F-DRL，价值和策略，并显示出与分布式和集中式DRL相比实现的卓越性能。

Recent advances in distributed artificial intelligence (AI) have led to tremendous breakthroughs in various communication services, from fault-tolerant factory automation to smart cities. When distributed learning is run over a set of wirelessly connected devices, random channel fluctuations and the incumbent services running on the same network impact the performance of both distributed learning and the coexisting service. In this paper, we investigate a mixed service scenario where distributed AI workflow and ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) services run concurrently over a network. Consequently, we propose a risk sensitivity-based formulation for device selection to minimize the AI training delays during its convergence period while ensuring that the operational requirements of the URLLC service are met. To address this challenging coexistence problem, we transform it into a deep reinforcement learning problem and address it via a framework based on soft actor-critic algorithm. We evaluate our solution with a realistic and 3GPP-compliant simulator for factory automation use cases. Our simulation results confirm that our solution can significantly decrease the training delay of the distributed AI service while keeping the URLLC availability above its required threshold and close to the scenario where URLLC solely consumes all network resources.

The modern dynamic and heterogeneous network brings differential environments with respective state transition probability to agents, which leads to the local strategy trap problem of traditional federated reinforcement learning (FRL) based network optimization algorithm. To solve this problem, we propose a novel Differentiated Federated Reinforcement Learning (DFRL), which evolves the global policy model integration and local inference with the global policy model in traditional FRL to a collaborative learning process with parallel global trends learning and differential local policy model learning. In the DFRL, the local policy learning model is adaptively updated with the global trends model and local environment and achieves better differentiated adaptation. We evaluate the outperformance of the proposal compared with the state-of-the-art FRL in a classical CartPole game with heterogeneous environments. Furthermore, we implement the proposal in the heterogeneous Space-air-ground Integrated Network (SAGIN) for the classical traffic offloading problem in network. The simulation result shows that the proposal shows better global performance and fairness than baselines in terms of throughput, delay, and packet drop rate.

无人驾驶飞机（UAV）用作空中基础站，可将时间敏感的包装从物联网设备传递到附近的陆地底站（TBS）。在此类无人产用的物联网网络中安排数据包，以确保TBS在TBS上确保新鲜（或最新的）物联网设备的数据包是一个挑战性的问题，因为它涉及两个同时的步骤（i）（i）在IOT设备上生成的数据包的同时进行样本由UAVS [HOP-1]和（ii）将采样数据包从UAVS更新到TBS [Hop-2]。为了解决这个问题，我们建议针对两跳UAV相关的IoT网络的信息年龄（AOI）调度算法。首先，我们提出了一个低复杂的AOI调度程序，称为MAF-MAD，该计划使用UAV（HOP-1）和最大AOI差异（MAD）策略采样最大AOI（MAF）策略，以更新从无人机到TBS（Hop-2）。我们证明，MAF-MAD是理想条件下的最佳AOI调度程序（无线无线通道和在物联网设备上产生交通生成）。相反，对于一般条件（物联网设备的损失渠道条件和不同的周期性交通生成），提出了深厚的增强学习算法，即近端政策优化（PPO）基于调度程序。仿真结果表明，在所有考虑的一般情况下，建议的基于PPO的调度程序优于MAF-MAD，MAF和Round-Robin等其他调度程序。

FOG无线电访问网络（F-RAN）是一项有前途的技术，用户移动设备（MDS）可以将计算任务卸载到附近的FOG接入点（F-APS）。由于F-APS的资源有限，因此设计有效的任务卸载方案很重要。在本文中，通过考虑随时间变化的网络环境，制定了F-RAN中的动态计算卸载和资源分配问题，以最大程度地减少MD的任务执行延迟和能源消耗。为了解决该问题，提出了基于联合的深入强化学习（DRL）算法，其中深层确定性策略梯度（DDPG）算法在每个F-AP中执行计算卸载和资源分配。利用联合学习来培训DDPG代理，以降低培训过程的计算复杂性并保护用户隐私。仿真结果表明，与其他现有策略相比，提议的联合DDPG算法可以更快地实现MDS更快的任务执行延迟和能源消耗。

车辆到车辆（V2V）通信的性能在很大程度上取决于使用的调度方法。虽然集中式网络调度程序提供高V2V通信可靠性，但它们的操作通常仅限于具有完整的蜂窝网络覆盖范围的区域。相比之下，在细胞外覆盖区域中，使用了相对效率低下的分布式无线电资源管理。为了利用集中式方法的好处来增强V2V通信在缺乏蜂窝覆盖的道路上的可靠性，我们建议使用VRLS（车辆加固学习调度程序），这是一种集中的调度程序，该调度程序主动为覆盖外的V2V Communications主动分配资源，以前}车辆离开蜂窝网络覆盖范围。通过在模拟的车辆环境中进行培训，VRL可以学习一项适应环境变化的调度策略，从而消除了在复杂的现实生活环境中对有针对性（重新）培训的需求。我们评估了在不同的移动性，网络负载，无线通道和资源配置下VRL的性能。 VRL的表现优于最新的区域中最新分布式调度算法，而无需蜂窝网络覆盖，通过在高负载条件下将数据包错误率降低了一半，并在低负载方案中实现了接近最大的可靠性。

Recent technological advancements in space, air and ground components have made possible a new network paradigm called "space-air-ground integrated network" (SAGIN). Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) play a key role in SAGINs. However, due to UAVs' high dynamics and complexity, the real-world deployment of a SAGIN becomes a major barrier for realizing such SAGINs. Compared to the space and terrestrial components, UAVs are expected to meet performance requirements with high flexibility and dynamics using limited resources. Therefore, employing UAVs in various usage scenarios requires well-designed planning in algorithmic approaches. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of recent learning-based algorithmic approaches. We consider possible reward functions and discuss the state-of-the-art algorithms for optimizing the reward functions, including Q-learning, deep Q-learning, multi-armed bandit (MAB), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and satisfaction-based learning algorithms. Unlike other survey papers, we focus on the methodological perspective of the optimization problem, which can be applicable to various UAV-assisted missions on a SAGIN using these algorithms. We simulate users and environments according to real-world scenarios and compare the learning-based and PSO-based methods in terms of throughput, load, fairness, computation time, etc. We also implement and evaluate the 2-dimensional (2D) and 3-dimensional (3D) variations of these algorithms to reflect different deployment cases. Our simulation suggests that the $3$D satisfaction-based learning algorithm outperforms the other approaches for various metrics in most cases. We discuss some open challenges at the end and our findings aim to provide design guidelines for algorithm selections while optimizing the deployment of UAV-assisted SAGINs.

在本文中，我们研究了多服务器边缘计算中基于区块链的联合学习（BFL）的新延迟优化问题。在此系统模型中，分布式移动设备（MDS）与一组Edge服务器（ESS）通信，以同时处理机器学习（ML）模型培训和阻止开采。为了协助ML模型培训用于资源受限的MD，我们制定了一种卸载策略，使MD可以将其数据传输到相关的ESS之一。然后，我们基于共识机制在边缘层上提出了一个新的分散的ML模型聚合解决方案，以通过基于对等（P2P）基于基于的区块链通信构建全局ML模型。区块链在MDS和ESS之间建立信任，以促进可靠的ML模型共享和合作共识形成，并能够快速消除由中毒攻击引起的操纵模型。我们将延迟感知的BFL作为优化，旨在通过联合考虑数据卸载决策，MDS的传输功率，MDS数据卸载，MDS的计算分配和哈希功率分配来最大程度地减少系统延迟。鉴于离散卸载和连续分配变量的混合作用空间，我们提出了一种具有参数化优势演员评论家算法的新型深度强化学习方案。从理论上讲，我们根据聚合延迟，迷你批量大小和P2P通信回合的数量来表征BFL的收敛属性。我们的数值评估证明了我们所提出的方案优于基线，从模型训练效率，收敛速度，系统潜伏期和对模型中毒攻击的鲁棒性方面。

Technology advancements in wireless communications and high-performance Extended Reality (XR) have empowered the developments of the Metaverse. The demand for Metaverse applications and hence, real-time digital twinning of real-world scenes is increasing. Nevertheless, the replication of 2D physical world images into 3D virtual world scenes is computationally intensive and requires computation offloading. The disparity in transmitted scene dimension (2D as opposed to 3D) leads to asymmetric data sizes in uplink (UL) and downlink (DL). To ensure the reliability and low latency of the system, we consider an asynchronous joint UL-DL scenario where in the UL stage, the smaller data size of the physical world scenes captured by multiple extended reality users (XUs) will be uploaded to the Metaverse Console (MC) to be construed and rendered. In the DL stage, the larger-size 3D virtual world scenes need to be transmitted back to the XUs. The decisions pertaining to computation offloading and channel assignment are optimized in the UL stage, and the MC will optimize power allocation for users assigned with a channel in the UL transmission stage. Some problems arise therefrom: (i) interactive multi-process chain, specifically Asynchronous Markov Decision Process (AMDP), (ii) joint optimization in multiple processes, and (iii) high-dimensional objective functions, or hybrid reward scenarios. To ensure the reliability and low latency of the system, we design a novel multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithm structure, namely Asynchronous Actors Hybrid Critic (AAHC). Extensive experiments demonstrate that compared to proposed baselines, AAHC obtains better solutions with preferable training time.

对于正交多访问（OMA）系统，服务的用户设备（UES）的数量仅限于可用的正交资源的数量。另一方面，非正交多访问（NOMA）方案允许多个UES使用相同的正交资源。这种额外的自由度为资源分配带来了新的挑战。缓冲状态信息（BSI），例如等待传输的数据包的大小和年龄，可用于改善OMA系统中的调度。在本文中，我们研究了BSI对上行链路多载波NOMA场景中集中调度程序的性能的影响，UE具有各种数据速率和延迟要求。为了处理将UES分配给资源的大型组合空间，我们提出了一个基于Actor-Critic-Critic强化学习纳入BSI的新型调度程序。使用诺基亚的“无线套件”进行培训和评估。我们提出了各种新颖的技术来稳定和加快训练。建议的调度程序优于基准调度程序。

我们考虑了在透明的蜂窝车辆到所有物品（C-V2X）系统中的联合渠道分配和电力分配的问题，其中多个车辆到网络（V2N）上行链路共享与多个车辆到车辆的时频资源（ v2v）排，使连接和自动驾驶汽车的团体可以紧密地一起旅行。由于在车辆环境中使用高用户移动性的性质，依赖全球渠道信息的传统集中优化方法在具有大量用户的C-V2X系统中可能不可行。利用多机构增强学习（RL）方法，我们提出了分布式资源分配（RA）算法来克服这一挑战。具体而言，我们将RA问题建模为多代理系统。仅基于本地渠道信息，每个排领导者充当代理，共同相互交互，因此选择了子频段和功率水平的最佳组合来传输其信号。为此，我们利用双重Q学习算法在同时最大化V2N链接的总和率的目标下共同训练代理，并满足所需延迟限制的每个V2V链接的数据包输送概率。仿真结果表明，与众所周知的详尽搜索算法相比，我们提出的基于RL的算法提供了紧密的性能。

The connectivity-aware path design is crucial in the effective deployment of autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Recently, Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms have become the popular approach to solving this type of complex problem, but RL algorithms suffer slow convergence. In this paper, we propose a Transfer Learning (TL) approach, where we use a teacher policy previously trained in an old domain to boost the path learning of the agent in the new domain. As the exploration processes and the training continue, the agent refines the path design in the new domain based on the subsequent interactions with the environment. We evaluate our approach considering an old domain at sub-6 GHz and a new domain at millimeter Wave (mmWave). The teacher path policy, previously trained at sub-6 GHz path, is the solution to a connectivity-aware path problem that we formulate as a constrained Markov Decision Process (CMDP). We employ a Lyapunov-based model-free Deep Q-Network (DQN) to solve the path design at sub-6 GHz that guarantees connectivity constraint satisfaction. We empirically demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach for different urban environment scenarios. The results demonstrate that our proposed approach is capable of reducing the training time considerably at mmWave.

自动驾驶汽车（AV）必须在动态环境中安全有效地操作。为此，配备联合雷达通信（JRC）功能的AVS可以通过使用雷达检测和数据通信功能来增强驾驶安全性。但是，在不确定性和周围环境的动态下，通过两种不同功能优化AV系统的性能非常具有挑战性。在这项工作中，我们首先提出一个基于马尔可夫决策过程（MDP）的智能优化框架，以帮助AV在周围环境的动态和不确定性下选择JRC操作功能时做出最佳决策。然后，我们开发了一种有效的学习算法，利用了深度强化学习技术的最新进展，以找到AV的最佳政策，而无需任何有关周围环境的先前信息。此外，为了使我们提出的框架更加可扩展，我们开发了一种转移学习（TL）机制，该机制使AV能够利用有价值的体验来加速培训过程，以加速培训过程。广泛的模拟表明，与其他常规的深钢筋学习方法相比，提议的可转移深钢筋学习框架可将AV的障碍检测概率降低到67％。

Terahertz频段（0.1---10 THZ）中的无线通信被视为未来第六代（6G）无线通信系统的关键促进技术之一，超出了大量多重输入多重输出（大量MIMO）技术。但是，THZ频率的非常高的传播衰减和分子吸收通常限制了信号传输距离和覆盖范围。从最近在可重构智能表面（RIS）上实现智能无线电传播环境的突破，我们为多跳RIS RIS辅助通信网络提供了一种新型的混合波束形成方案，以改善THZ波段频率的覆盖范围。特别是，部署了多个被动和可控的RIS，以协助基站（BS）和多个单人体用户之间的传输。我们通过利用最新的深钢筋学习（DRL）来应对传播损失的最新进展，研究了BS在BS和RISS上的模拟光束矩阵的联合设计。为了改善拟议的基于DRL的算法的收敛性，然后设计了两种算法，以初始化数字波束形成和使用交替优化技术的模拟波束形成矩阵。仿真结果表明，与基准相比，我们提出的方案能够改善50 \％的THZ通信范围。此外，还表明，我们提出的基于DRL的方法是解决NP-固定光束形成问题的最先进方法，尤其是当RIS辅助THZ通信网络的信号经历多个啤酒花时。

合作的感知在将车辆的感知范围扩展到超出其视线之外至关重要。然而，在有限的通信资源下交换原始感官数据是不可行的。为了实现有效的合作感知，车辆需要解决以下基本问题：需要共享哪些感官数据？，在哪个分辨率？，以及哪个车辆？为了回答这个问题，在本文中，提出了一种新颖的框架来允许加强学习（RL）基于车辆关联，资源块（RB）分配和通过利用基于四叉的点的协作感知消息（CPM）的内容选择云压缩机制。此外，引入了联合的RL方法，以便在跨车辆上加速训练过程。仿真结果表明，RL代理能够有效地学习车辆关联，RB分配和消息内容选择，同时在接收的感官信息方面最大化车辆的满足。结果还表明，与非联邦方法相比，联邦RL改善了培训过程，可以在与非联邦方法相同的时间内实现更好的政策。

设想了一座低空地球轨道（LEO）卫星（SAT）的Mega-Constulation，以提供超出第五代（5G）蜂窝系统的全球覆盖网网络。 Leo SAT网络在时代的SAT网络拓扑中展示了许多用户的极长链接距离。这使得现有的多个访问协议，例如基于随机接入信道（RACH）的蜂窝协议，专为固定地面网络拓扑而设计，不适用于。为了克服这个问题，在本文中，我们提出了一种新颖的LEO SAT网络无随机访问解决方案，被称为随机接入信道协议（ERACH）。在与现有的基于模型和标准化协议的鲜明对比中，ERACH是一种无模型方法，通过使用多档次深度加强学习（Madrl），通过与非静止网络环境的互动出现。此外，通过利用已知的SAT轨道模式，ERACH不需要跨越用户的中心协调或额外的通信，而训练会聚通过规则的轨道模式稳定。与RACH相比，我们从各种模拟中展示了我们所提出的ERACH的平均网络吞吐量增加了54.6％，平均访问延迟较低的两倍，同时实现了0.989的jain的公平指数。