Before the transition of AVs to urban roads and subsequently unprecedented changes in traffic conditions, evaluation of transportation policies and futuristic road design related to pedestrian crossing behavior is of vital importance. Recent studies analyzed the non-causal impact of various variables on pedestrian waiting time in the presence of AVs. However, we mainly investigate the causal effect of traffic density on pedestrian waiting time. We develop a Double/Debiased Machine Learning (DML) model in which the impact of confounders variable influencing both a policy and an outcome of interest is addressed, resulting in unbiased policy evaluation. Furthermore, we try to analyze the effect of traffic density by developing a copula-based joint model of two main components of pedestrian crossing behavior, pedestrian stress level and waiting time. The copula approach has been widely used in the literature, for addressing self-selection problems, which can be classified as a causality analysis in travel behavior modeling. The results obtained from copula approach and DML are compared based on the effect of traffic density. In DML model structure, the standard error term of density parameter is lower than copula approach and the confidence interval is considerably more reliable. In addition, despite the similar sign of effect, the copula approach estimates the effect of traffic density lower than DML, due to the spurious effect of confounders. In short, the DML model structure can flexibly adjust the impact of confounders by using machine learning algorithms and is more reliable for planning future policies.

我们根据机器学习，即人工智能的子场，折扣对瑞士联邦铁路发行的火车票的需求影响。考虑到基于调查的超级票的买家样本，我们调查了哪些客户或旅行相关的特征（包括折现率）预测购买行为，即：预订旅行，否则未通过火车实现，而不是第二次购买 - 售票或重新安排旅行时（例如，远离高峰时间），当时被提供超级票时。预测机器学习表明，客户的年龄，与特定连接的需求相关信息（例如出发时间和利用率）以及折现水平允许在一定程度上预测购买行为。此外，我们使用因果机学习来评估折现率对重新安排旅行的影响，这似乎是根据高峰时间的容量限制而相关的。假设（i）折现率是基于我们丰富的特征的准随机，（ii）购买决策以折现率单调较弱，我们确定了“始终购买者”的折现率的效果，谁会旅行。即使没有折扣，也要根据我们的调查，该调查在没有折扣的情况下询问客户行为。我们发现，平均而言，将折现率提高一个百分点会使重新安排的旅行的份额增加0.16个百分点，但总是买家。研究效果的异质性在观察物中的异质性表明，在控制其他几个特征时，休闲旅行者以及高峰时段的效果较高。

Causal inference is the process of using assumptions, study designs, and estimation strategies to draw conclusions about the causal relationships between variables based on data. This allows researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms at work in complex systems and make more informed decisions. In many settings, we may not fully observe all the confounders that affect both the treatment and outcome variables, complicating the estimation of causal effects. To address this problem, a growing literature in both causal inference and machine learning proposes to use Instrumental Variables (IV). This paper serves as the first effort to systematically and comprehensively introduce and discuss the IV methods and their applications in both causal inference and machine learning. First, we provide the formal definition of IVs and discuss the identification problem of IV regression methods under different assumptions. Second, we categorize the existing work on IV methods into three streams according to the focus on the proposed methods, including two-stage least squares with IVs, control function with IVs, and evaluation of IVs. For each stream, we present both the classical causal inference methods, and recent developments in the machine learning literature. Then, we introduce a variety of applications of IV methods in real-world scenarios and provide a summary of the available datasets and algorithms. Finally, we summarize the literature, discuss the open problems and suggest promising future research directions for IV methods and their applications. We also develop a toolkit of IVs methods reviewed in this survey at https://github.com/causal-machine-learning-lab/mliv.

Building an accurate model of travel behaviour based on individuals' characteristics and built environment attributes is of importance for policy-making and transportation planning. Recent experiments with big data and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms toward a better travel behaviour analysis have mainly overlooked socially disadvantaged groups. Accordingly, in this study, we explore the travel behaviour responses of low-income individuals to transit investments in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area, Canada, using statistical and ML models. We first investigate how the model choice affects the prediction of transit use by the low-income group. This step includes comparing the predictive performance of traditional and ML algorithms and then evaluating a transit investment policy by contrasting the predicted activities and the spatial distribution of transit trips generated by vulnerable households after improving accessibility. We also empirically investigate the proposed transit investment by each algorithm and compare it with the city of Brampton's future transportation plan. While, unsurprisingly, the ML algorithms outperform classical models, there are still doubts about using them due to interpretability concerns. Hence, we adopt recent local and global model-agnostic interpretation tools to interpret how the model arrives at its predictions. Our findings reveal the great potential of ML algorithms for enhanced travel behaviour predictions for low-income strata without considerably sacrificing interpretability.

为了进一步开发异构治疗效果的统计推理问题，本文在Breiman（2001）随机林树（RFT）和Wager等人的情况下建立了使用古典的优秀统计属性来参数化非参数问题的（2018）因果树。oLs和基于协变量分数的局部线性间隔的划分，同时保留随机林树木，具有可构造的置信区间和渐近常数特性的优势[athey和Imbens（2016），efron（2014），赌第等（2014年）\ citep {wagert2014Asymptotic}，我们根据固定规则提出了一个决策树，根据固定规则与本地样本的多项式估计相结合，我们称之为临时局部线性因果树（QLPRT）和林（QLPRF）。

在过去的五十年中，研究人员已经开发了设计和改进了应急响应管理（ERM）系统的统计，数据驱动，分析和算法方法。该问题已被认为是本质上的困难，并且构成了不确定性下的时空决策，这在文献中已经解决了不同的假设和方法。该调查提供了对这些方法的详细审查，重点关注有关四个子流程的关键挑战和问题：（a）事件预测，（b）入射检测，（c）资源分配，和（c）计算机辅助调度紧急响应。我们突出了该领域前后工作的优势和缺点，并探讨了不同建模范式之间的相似之处和差异。我们通过说明这种复杂领域未来研究的开放挑战和机会的结论。

自成立以来，选择建模领域一直由理论驱动的建模方法主导。机器学习提供了一种用于建模行为的替代数据驱动方法，越来越越来越欣赏我们的领域。机器学习模型的交叉授粉，技术和实践有助于克服当前理论驱动的建模范式中遇到的问题和限制，例如模型选择的主观劳动密集型搜索过程，无法使用文本和图像数据。然而，尽管使用机器学习的进步来改善选择建模实践的潜在好处，但选择建模领域已经犹豫了拥抱机器学习。本讨论文件旨在巩固用于使用机器学习模型，技术和实践的知识，以获得选择建模，并讨论其潜力。因此，我们希望不仅希望在选择建模中进一步集成机器学习的情况是有益的，而且还可以进一步方便。为此，我们澄清了两个建模范式之间的相似性和差异;我们审查了机器学习选择建模;我们探讨了拥抱机器学习模式和技术的机会领域，以改善我们的实践。要结束本讨论文件，我们提出了一系列的研究问题，必须解决，以更好地了解机器学习如何受益选择建模。

我们应用因果机学习算法来评估营销干预措施的因果影响，即优惠券活动，对零售商的销售。除了评估不同类型的优惠券的平均影响外，我们还调查了不同客户群的因果关系效应的异质性，例如，在相对较高的客户与先前购买相对较高的客户之间。最后，我们使用最佳政策学习来确定（以数据驱动方式）哪些客户群应针对优惠券活动，以最大程度地提高营销干预措施在销售方面的有效性。我们发现，在检查的五个优惠券类别中，只有两个，即适用于药店产品和其他食品产品类别的优惠券，对零售商销售具有统计学上的显着积极影响。对小组平均治疗效果的评估表明，在商店的先前购买中定义的客户群中，优惠券提供的影响有很大的差异，药品店优惠券在先前购买较高的客户和其他食品优惠券中特别有效先前购买较低的客户。我们的研究提供了一种用例，用于在业务分析中应用因果机学习，以评估特定公司政策（例如营销活动）对决策支持的因果影响。

因果关系是理解世界的科学努力的基本组成部分。不幸的是，在心理学和社会科学中，因果关系仍然是禁忌。由于越来越多的建议采用因果方法进行研究的重要性，我们重新制定了心理学研究方法的典型方法，以使不可避免的因果理论与其余的研究渠道协调。我们提出了一个新的过程，该过程始于从因果发现和机器学习的融合中纳入技术的发展，验证和透明的理论形式规范。然后，我们提出将完全指定的理论模型的复杂性降低到与给定目标假设相关的基本子模型中的方法。从这里，我们确定利息量是否可以从数据中估算出来，如果是的，则建议使用半参数机器学习方法来估计因果关系。总体目标是介绍新的研究管道，该管道可以（a）促进与测试因果理论的愿望兼容的科学询问（b）鼓励我们的理论透明代表作为明确的数学对象，（c）将我们的统计模型绑定到我们的统计模型中该理论的特定属性，因此减少了理论到模型间隙通常引起的规范不足问题，以及（d）产生因果关系和可重复性的结果和估计。通过具有现实世界数据的教学示例来证明该过程，我们以摘要和讨论来结论。

We consider the problem of dynamic pricing of a product in the presence of feature-dependent price sensitivity. Developing practical algorithms that can estimate price elasticities robustly, especially when information about no purchases (losses) is not available, to drive such automated pricing systems is a challenge faced by many industries. Based on the Poisson semi-parametric approach, we construct a flexible yet interpretable demand model where the price related part is parametric while the remaining (nuisance) part of the model is non-parametric and can be modeled via sophisticated machine learning (ML) techniques. The estimation of price-sensitivity parameters of this model via direct one-stage regression techniques may lead to biased estimates due to regularization. To address this concern, we propose a two-stage estimation methodology which makes the estimation of the price-sensitivity parameters robust to biases in the estimators of the nuisance parameters of the model. In the first-stage we construct estimators of observed purchases and prices given the feature vector using sophisticated ML estimators such as deep neural networks. Utilizing the estimators from the first-stage, in the second-stage we leverage a Bayesian dynamic generalized linear model to estimate the price-sensitivity parameters. We test the performance of the proposed estimation schemes on simulated and real sales transaction data from the Airline industry. Our numerical studies demonstrate that our proposed two-stage approach reduces the estimation error in price-sensitivity parameters from 25\% to 4\% in realistic simulation settings. The two-stage estimation techniques proposed in this work allows practitioners to leverage modern ML techniques to robustly estimate price-sensitivities while still maintaining interpretability and allowing ease of validation of its various constituent parts.

随着连接和自动化车辆（CAV）技术的出现，越来越需要在使用这种技术的同时评估驾驶员行为。在第一研究中，在驾驶模拟器环境中引入了使用CAV技术的行人碰撞警告（PCW）系统，以评估驾驶员制动行为，在jaywalking行人的存在下。招募了来自各种各样的社会经济背景的93名参与者，为这项研究招募了该研究的，为此开设了哈尔的摩市中心的虚拟网络。眼睛跟踪装置还用于观察分心和头部运动。对数逻辑加速故障时间（AFT）分配模型用于该分析，计算减速时间;从行人变得可见的那一刻到达到最小速度的点，让行人通过。 PCW系统的存在显着影响减速时间和减速率，因为它增加了前者并减少了后者，这证明了该系统在提供有效驾驶机动方面的有效性，通过大大降低速度。进行了混蛋分析，以分析制动和加速的突然性。凝视分析表明，该系统能够吸引司机的注意力，因为大多数司机都注意到了显示的警告。驾驶员与路线和连接的车辆的熟悉程度降低了减速时间;由于雄性往往具有更长的减速时间，性别也会产生重大影响，即更多的时间来舒适地刹车并允许行人通过。

汽车行业在过去几十年中见证了越来越多的发展程度;从制造手动操作车辆到具有高自动化水平的制造车辆。随着近期人工智能（AI）的发展，汽车公司现在雇用BlackBox AI模型来使车辆能够感知其环境，并使人类少或没有输入的驾驶决策。希望能够在商业规模上部署自治车辆（AV），通过社会接受AV成为至关重要的，并且可能在很大程度上取决于其透明度，可信度和遵守法规的程度。通过为AVS行为的解释提供对这些接受要求的遵守对这些验收要求的评估。因此，解释性被视为AVS的重要要求。 AV应该能够解释他们在他们运作的环境中的“见到”。在本文中，我们对可解释的自动驾驶的现有工作体系进行了全面的调查。首先，我们通过突出显示并强调透明度，问责制和信任的重要性来开放一个解释的动机;并审查与AVS相关的现有法规和标准。其次，我们识别并分类了参与发展，使用和监管的不同利益相关者，并引出了AV的解释要求。第三，我们对以前的工作进行了严格的审查，以解释不同的AV操作（即，感知，本地化，规划，控制和系统管理）。最后，我们确定了相关的挑战并提供建议，例如AV可解释性的概念框架。该调查旨在提供对AVS中解释性感兴趣的研究人员所需的基本知识。

This paper describes Waymo's Collision Avoidance Testing (CAT) methodology: a scenario-based testing method that evaluates the safety of the Waymo Driver Automated Driving Systems' (ADS) intended functionality in conflict situations initiated by other road users that require urgent evasive maneuvers. Because SAE Level 4 ADS are responsible for the dynamic driving task (DDT), when engaged, without immediate human intervention, evaluating a Level 4 ADS using scenario-based testing is difficult due to the potentially infinite number of operational scenarios in which hazardous situations may unfold. To that end, in this paper we first describe the safety test objectives for the CAT methodology, including the collision and serious injury metrics and the reference behavior model representing a non-impaired eyes on conflict human driver used to form an acceptance criterion. Afterward, we introduce the process for identifying potentially hazardous situations from a combination of human data, ADS testing data, and expert knowledge about the product design and associated Operational Design Domain (ODD). The test allocation and execution strategy is presented next, which exclusively utilize simulations constructed from sensor data collected on a test track, real-world driving, or from simulated sensor data. The paper concludes with the presentation of results from applying CAT to the fully autonomous ride-hailing service that Waymo operates in San Francisco, California and Phoenix, Arizona. The iterative nature of scenario identification, combined with over ten years of experience of on-road testing, results in a scenario database that converges to a representative set of responder role scenarios for a given ODD. Using Waymo's virtual test platform, which is calibrated to data collected as part of many years of ADS development, the CAT methodology provides a robust and scalable safety evaluation.

Based on administrative data of unemployed in Belgium, we estimate the labour market effects of three training programmes at various aggregation levels using Modified Causal Forests, a causal machine learning estimator. While all programmes have positive effects after the lock-in period, we find substantial heterogeneity across programmes and unemployed. Simulations show that 'black-box' rules that reassign unemployed to programmes that maximise estimated individual gains can considerably improve effectiveness: up to 20 percent more (less) time spent in (un)employment within a 30 months window. A shallow policy tree delivers a simple rule that realizes about 70 percent of this gain.

大型观察数据越来越多地提供健康，经济和社会科学等学科，研究人员对因果问题而不是预测感兴趣。在本文中，从旨在调查参与学校膳食计划对健康指标的实证研究，研究了使用非参数回归的方法估算异质治疗效果的问题。首先，我们介绍了与观察或非完全随机数据进行因果推断相关的设置和相关的问题，以及如何在统计学习工具的帮助下解决这些问题。然后，我们审查并制定现有最先进的框架的统一分类，允许通过非参数回归模型来估算单个治疗效果。在介绍模型选择问题的简要概述后，我们说明了一些关于三种不同模拟研究的方法的性能。我们通过展示一些关于学校膳食计划数据的实证分析的一些方法的使用来结束。

The pattern of pedestrian crashes varies greatly depending on lighting circumstances, emphasizing the need of examining pedestrian crashes in various lighting conditions. Using Louisiana pedestrian fatal and injury crash data (2010-2019), this study applied Association Rules Mining (ARM) to identify the hidden pattern of crash risk factors according to three different lighting conditions (daylight, dark-with-streetlight, and dark-no-streetlight). Based on the generated rules, the results show that daylight pedestrian crashes are associated with children (less than 15 years), senior pedestrians (greater than 64 years), older drivers (>64 years), and other driving behaviors such as failure to yield, inattentive/distracted, illness/fatigue/asleep. Additionally, young drivers (15-24 years) are involved in severe pedestrian crashes in daylight conditions. This study also found pedestrian alcohol/drug involvement as the most frequent item in the dark-with-streetlight condition. This crash type is particularly associated with pedestrian action (crossing intersection/midblock), driver age (55-64 years), speed limit (30-35 mph), and specific area type (business with mixed residential area). Fatal pedestrian crashes are found to be associated with roadways with high-speed limits (>50 mph) during the dark without streetlight condition. Some other risk factors linked with high-speed limit related crashes are pedestrians walking with/against the traffic, presence of pedestrian dark clothing, pedestrian alcohol/drug involvement. The research findings are expected to provide an improved understanding of the underlying relationships between pedestrian crash risk factors and specific lighting conditions. Highway safety experts can utilize these findings to conduct a decision-making process for selecting effective countermeasures to reduce pedestrian crashes strategically.

作为行业4.0时代的一项新兴技术，数字双胞胎因其承诺进一步优化流程设计，质量控制，健康监测，决策和政策制定等，通过全面对物理世界进行建模，以进一步优化流程设计，质量控制，健康监测，决策和政策，因此获得了前所未有的关注。互连的数字模型。在一系列两部分的论文中，我们研究了不同建模技术，孪生启用技术以及数字双胞胎常用的不确定性量化和优化方法的基本作用。第二篇论文介绍了数字双胞胎的关键启示技术的文献综述，重点是不确定性量化，优化方法，开源数据集和工具，主要发现，挑战和未来方向。讨论的重点是当前的不确定性量化和优化方法，以及如何在数字双胞胎的不同维度中应用它们。此外，本文介绍了一个案例研究，其中构建和测试了电池数字双胞胎，以说明在这两部分评论中回顾的一些建模和孪生方法。 GITHUB上可以找到用于生成案例研究中所有结果和数字的代码和预处理数据。

在本文中，我们提出了一种非参数估计的方法，并推断了一般样本选择模型中因果效应参数的异质界限，初始治疗可能会影响干预后结果是否观察到。可观察到的协变量可能会混淆治疗选择，而观察结果和不可观察的结果可能会混淆。该方法提供条件效应界限作为策略相关的预处理变量的功能。它允许对身份不明的条件效应曲线进行有效的统计推断。我们使用灵活的半参数脱偏机学习方法，该方法可以适应柔性功能形式和治疗，选择和结果过程之间的高维混杂变量。还提供了易于验证的高级条件，以进行估计和错误指定的鲁棒推理保证。

基于AI和机器学习的决策系统已在各种现实世界中都使用，包括医疗保健，执法，教育和金融。不再是牵强的，即设想一个未来，自治系统将推动整个业务决策，并且更广泛地支持大规模决策基础设施以解决社会最具挑战性的问题。当人类做出决定时，不公平和歧视的问题普遍存在，并且当使用几乎没有透明度，问责制和公平性的机器做出决定时（或可能会放大）。在本文中，我们介绍了\ textit {Causal公平分析}的框架，目的是填补此差距，即理解，建模，并可能解决决策设置中的公平性问题。我们方法的主要见解是将观察到数据中存在的差异的量化与基本且通常是未观察到的因果机制收集的因果机制的收集，这些机制首先会产生差异，挑战我们称之为因果公平的基本问题分析（FPCFA）。为了解决FPCFA，我们研究了分解差异和公平性的经验度量的问题，将这种变化归因于结构机制和人群的不同单位。我们的努力最终达到了公平地图，这是组织和解释文献中不同标准之间关系的首次系统尝试。最后，我们研究了进行因果公平分析并提出一本公平食谱的最低因果假设，该假设使数据科学家能够评估不同影响和不同治疗的存在。

在过去二十年中，识别具有不同纵向数据趋势的群体的方法已经成为跨越许多研究领域的兴趣。为了支持研究人员，我们总结了文献关于纵向聚类的指导。此外，我们提供了一种纵向聚类方法，包括基于基团的轨迹建模（GBTM），生长混合模拟（GMM）和纵向K平均值（KML）。该方法在基本级别引入，并列出了强度，限制和模型扩展。在最近数据收集的发展之后，将注意这些方法的适用性赋予密集的纵向数据（ILD）。我们展示了使用R.中可用的包在合成数据集上的应用程序的应用。