添加到输入的最小侵犯扰动已被证明在愚弄深度神经网络方面有效。在本文中，我们介绍了几种创新，使白盒子目标攻击遵循攻击者的目标：欺骗模型将更高的目标类概率分配比任何其他更高的概率，同时停留在距原始距离的指定距离内输入。首先，我们提出了一种新的损失函数，明确地捕获了目标攻击的目标，特别是通过使用所有类的Logits而不是仅仅是一个子集。我们表明，具有这种损失功能的自动PGD比与其他常用损耗功能相比发现更多的对抗示例。其次，我们提出了一种新的攻击方法，它使用进一步发发版本的我们的损失函数捕获错误分类目标和$ l _ {\ infty} $距离限制$ \ epsilon $。这种新的攻击方法在CIFAR10 DataSet上比较成功了1.5--4.2％，而在ImageNet DataSet上比下一个最先进的攻击更成功。我们使用统计测试确认，我们的攻击优于最先进的攻击不同数据集和$ \ epsilon $和不同防御的价值。

Adaptive attacks have (rightfully) become the de facto standard for evaluating defenses to adversarial examples. We find, however, that typical adaptive evaluations are incomplete. We demonstrate that thirteen defenses recently published at ICLR, ICML and NeurIPS-and which illustrate a diverse set of defense strategies-can be circumvented despite attempting to perform evaluations using adaptive attacks. While prior evaluation papers focused mainly on the end result-showing that a defense was ineffective-this paper focuses on laying out the methodology and the approach necessary to perform an adaptive attack. Some of our attack strategies are generalizable, but no single strategy would have been sufficient for all defenses. This underlines our key message that adaptive attacks cannot be automated and always require careful and appropriate tuning to a given defense. We hope that these analyses will serve as guidance on how to properly perform adaptive attacks against defenses to adversarial examples, and thus will allow the community to make further progress in building more robust models.

The field of defense strategies against adversarial attacks has significantly grown over the last years, but progress is hampered as the evaluation of adversarial defenses is often insufficient and thus gives a wrong impression of robustness. Many promising defenses could be broken later on, making it difficult to identify the state-of-the-art. Frequent pitfalls in the evaluation are improper tuning of hyperparameters of the attacks, gradient obfuscation or masking. In this paper we first propose two extensions of the PGD-attack overcoming failures due to suboptimal step size and problems of the objective function. We then combine our novel attacks with two complementary existing ones to form a parameter-free, computationally affordable and user-independent ensemble of attacks to test adversarial robustness. We apply our ensemble to over 50 models from papers published at recent top machine learning and computer vision venues. In all except one of the cases we achieve lower robust test accuracy than reported in these papers, often by more than 10%, identifying several broken defenses.

评估防御模型的稳健性是对抗对抗鲁棒性研究的具有挑战性的任务。僵化的渐变，先前已经发现了一种梯度掩蔽，以许多防御方法存在并导致鲁棒性的错误信号。在本文中，我们确定了一种更细微的情况，称为不平衡梯度，也可能导致过高的对抗性鲁棒性。当边缘损耗的一个术语的梯度主导并将攻击朝向次优化方向推动时，发生不平衡梯度的现象。为了利用不平衡的梯度，我们制定了分解利润率损失的边缘分解（MD）攻击，并通过两阶段过程分别探讨了这些术语的攻击性。我们还提出了一个Multared和Ensemble版本的MD攻击。通过调查自2018年以来提出的17个防御模型，我们发现6种型号易受不平衡梯度的影响，我们的MD攻击可以减少由最佳基线独立攻击评估的鲁棒性另外2％。我们还提供了对不平衡梯度的可能原因和有效对策的深入分析。

Although deep neural networks (DNNs) have achieved great success in many tasks, they can often be fooled by adversarial examples that are generated by adding small but purposeful distortions to natural examples. Previous studies to defend against adversarial examples mostly focused on refining the DNN models, but have either shown limited success or required expensive computation. We propose a new strategy, feature squeezing, that can be used to harden DNN models by detecting adversarial examples. Feature squeezing reduces the search space available to an adversary by coalescing samples that correspond to many different feature vectors in the original space into a single sample. By comparing a DNN model's prediction on the original input with that on squeezed inputs, feature squeezing detects adversarial examples with high accuracy and few false positives.This paper explores two feature squeezing methods: reducing the color bit depth of each pixel and spatial smoothing. These simple strategies are inexpensive and complementary to other defenses, and can be combined in a joint detection framework to achieve high detection rates against state-of-the-art attacks.

Neural networks provide state-of-the-art results for most machine learning tasks. Unfortunately, neural networks are vulnerable to adversarial examples: given an input x and any target classification t, it is possible to find a new input x that is similar to x but classified as t. This makes it difficult to apply neural networks in security-critical areas. Defensive distillation is a recently proposed approach that can take an arbitrary neural network, and increase its robustness, reducing the success rate of current attacks' ability to find adversarial examples from 95% to 0.5%.In this paper, we demonstrate that defensive distillation does not significantly increase the robustness of neural networks by introducing three new attack algorithms that are successful on both distilled and undistilled neural networks with 100% probability. Our attacks are tailored to three distance metrics used previously in the literature, and when compared to previous adversarial example generation algorithms, our attacks are often much more effective (and never worse). Furthermore, we propose using high-confidence adversarial examples in a simple transferability test we show can also be used to break defensive distillation. We hope our attacks will be used as a benchmark in future defense attempts to create neural networks that resist adversarial examples.

Designing powerful adversarial attacks is of paramount importance for the evaluation of $\ell_p$-bounded adversarial defenses. Projected Gradient Descent (PGD) is one of the most effective and conceptually simple algorithms to generate such adversaries. The search space of PGD is dictated by the steepest ascent directions of an objective. Despite the plethora of objective function choices, there is no universally superior option and robustness overestimation may arise from ill-suited objective selection. Driven by this observation, we postulate that the combination of different objectives through a simple loss alternating scheme renders PGD more robust towards design choices. We experimentally verify this assertion on a synthetic-data example and by evaluating our proposed method across 25 different $\ell_{\infty}$-robust models and 3 datasets. The performance improvement is consistent, when compared to the single loss counterparts. In the CIFAR-10 dataset, our strongest adversarial attack outperforms all of the white-box components of AutoAttack (AA) ensemble, as well as the most powerful attacks existing on the literature, achieving state-of-the-art results in the computational budget of our study ($T=100$, no restarts).

This paper investigates recently proposed approaches for defending against adversarial examples and evaluating adversarial robustness. We motivate adversarial risk as an objective for achieving models robust to worst-case inputs. We then frame commonly used attacks and evaluation metrics as defining a tractable surrogate objective to the true adversarial risk. This suggests that models may optimize this surrogate rather than the true adversarial risk. We formalize this notion as obscurity to an adversary, and develop tools and heuristics for identifying obscured models and designing transparent models. We demonstrate that this is a significant problem in practice by repurposing gradient-free optimization techniques into adversarial attacks, which we use to decrease the accuracy of several recently proposed defenses to near zero. Our hope is that our formulations and results will help researchers to develop more powerful defenses.

神经网络对攻击的缺乏鲁棒性引起了对安全敏感环境（例如自动驾驶汽车）的担忧。虽然许多对策看起来可能很有希望，但只有少数能够承受严格的评估。使用随机变换（RT）的防御能力显示出令人印象深刻的结果，尤其是Imagenet上的Bart（Raff等，2019）。但是，这种防御尚未经过严格评估，使其稳健性的理解不足。它们的随机特性使评估更具挑战性，并使对确定性模型的许多拟议攻击不可应用。首先，我们表明BART评估中使用的BPDA攻击（Athalye等，2018a）无效，可能高估了其稳健性。然后，我们尝试通过明智的转换和贝叶斯优化来调整其参数来构建最强的RT防御。此外，我们创造了最强烈的攻击来评估我们的RT防御。我们的新攻击极大地胜过基线，与常用的EOT攻击减少19％相比，将准确性降低了83％（$ 4.3 \ times $改善）。我们的结果表明，在Imagenette数据集上的RT防御（ImageNet的十级子集）在对抗性示例上并不强大。进一步扩展研究，我们使用新的攻击来对抗RT防御（称为Advrt），从而获得了巨大的稳健性增长。代码可从https://github.com/wagner-group/demystify-random-transform获得。

在过去的十年中，已经对对抗性的例子，旨在诱导机器学习模型中最坏情况行为的输入进行了广泛的研究。然而，我们对这一现象的理解源于相当零散的知识库。目前，有少数攻击，每个攻击在威胁模型中都有不同的假设和无与伦比的最优定义。在本文中，我们提出了一种系统的方法来表征最坏情况（即最佳）对手。我们首先通过将攻击组件雾化到表面和旅行者中，引入对抗机器学习中攻击的扩展分解。通过分解，我们列举了组件以创建576次攻击（以前没有探索568次攻击）。接下来，我们提出了帕累托合奏攻击（PEA）：上限攻击性能的理论攻击。有了我们的新攻击，我们衡量相对于PEA的性能：稳健和非稳定模型，七个数据集和三个扩展的基于LP的威胁模型，其中包含计算成本，从而形式化了对抗性策略的空间。从我们的评估中，我们发现攻击性能是高度背景的：域，稳健性和威胁模型可以对攻击效率产生深远的影响。我们的调查表明，未来衡量机器学习安全性的研究应：（1）与域和威胁模型背景相关，并且（2）超越了当今使用的少数已知攻击。

We propose the Square Attack, a score-based black-box l2and l∞-adversarial attack that does not rely on local gradient information and thus is not affected by gradient masking. Square Attack is based on a randomized search scheme which selects localized squareshaped updates at random positions so that at each iteration the perturbation is situated approximately at the boundary of the feasible set. Our method is significantly more query efficient and achieves a higher success rate compared to the state-of-the-art methods, especially in the untargeted setting. In particular, on ImageNet we improve the average query efficiency in the untargeted setting for various deep networks by a factor of at least 1.8 and up to 3 compared to the recent state-ofthe-art l∞-attack of Al-Dujaili & OReilly (2020). Moreover, although our attack is black-box, it can also outperform gradient-based white-box attacks on the standard benchmarks achieving a new state-of-the-art in terms of the success rate. The code of our attack is available at https://github.com/max-andr/square-attack.

在测试时间进行优化的自适应防御能力有望改善对抗性鲁棒性。我们对这种自适应测试时间防御措施进行分类，解释其潜在的好处和缺点，并评估图像分类的最新自适应防御能力的代表性。不幸的是，经过我们仔细的案例研究评估时，没有任何显着改善静态防御。有些甚至削弱了基本静态模型，同时增加了推理计算。尽管这些结果令人失望，但我们仍然认为自适应测试时间防御措施是一项有希望的研究途径，因此，我们为他们的彻底评估提供了建议。我们扩展了Carlini等人的清单。（2019年）通过提供针对自适应防御的具体步骤。

尽管机器学习系统的效率和可扩展性，但最近的研究表明，许多分类方法，尤其是深神经网络（DNN），易受对抗的例子;即，仔细制作欺骗训练有素的分类模型的例子，同时无法区分从自然数据到人类。这使得在安全关键区域中应用DNN或相关方法可能不安全。由于这个问题是由Biggio等人确定的。 （2013）和Szegedy等人。（2014年），在这一领域已经完成了很多工作，包括开发攻击方法，以产生对抗的例子和防御技术的构建防范这些例子。本文旨在向统计界介绍这一主题及其最新发展，主要关注对抗性示例的产生和保护。在数值实验中使用的计算代码（在Python和R）公开可用于读者探讨调查的方法。本文希望提交人们将鼓励更多统计学人员在这种重要的令人兴奋的领域的产生和捍卫对抗的例子。

Recent work has demonstrated that deep neural networks are vulnerable to adversarial examples-inputs that are almost indistinguishable from natural data and yet classified incorrectly by the network. In fact, some of the latest findings suggest that the existence of adversarial attacks may be an inherent weakness of deep learning models. To address this problem, we study the adversarial robustness of neural networks through the lens of robust optimization. This approach provides us with a broad and unifying view on much of the prior work on this topic. Its principled nature also enables us to identify methods for both training and attacking neural networks that are reliable and, in a certain sense, universal. In particular, they specify a concrete security guarantee that would protect against any adversary. These methods let us train networks with significantly improved resistance to a wide range of adversarial attacks. They also suggest the notion of security against a first-order adversary as a natural and broad security guarantee. We believe that robustness against such well-defined classes of adversaries is an important stepping stone towards fully resistant deep learning models. 1

深度卷积神经网络（CNN）很容易被输入图像的细微，不可察觉的变化所欺骗。为了解决此漏洞，对抗训练会创建扰动模式，并将其包括在培训设置中以鲁棒性化模型。与仅使用阶级有限信息的现有对抗训练方法（例如，使用交叉渗透损失）相反，我们建议利用功能空间中的其他信息来促进更强的对手，这些信息又用于学习强大的模型。具体来说，我们将使用另一类的目标样本的样式和内容信息以及其班级边界信息来创建对抗性扰动。我们以深入监督的方式应用了我们提出的多任务目标，从而提取了多尺度特征知识，以创建最大程度地分开对手。随后，我们提出了一种最大边缘对抗训练方法，该方法可最大程度地减少源图像与其对手之间的距离，并最大程度地提高对手和目标图像之间的距离。与最先进的防御能力相比，我们的对抗训练方法表明了强大的鲁棒性，可以很好地推广到自然发生的损坏和数据分配变化，并保留了清洁示例的模型准确性。

当有大量的计算资源可用时，AutoAttack（AA）是评估对抗性鲁棒性的最可靠方法。但是，高计算成本（例如，比项目梯度下降攻击的100倍）使AA对于具有有限计算资源的从业者来说是不可行的，并且也阻碍了AA在对抗培训中的应用（AT）。在本文中，我们提出了一种新颖的方法，即最小利润率（MM）攻击，以快速可靠地评估对抗性鲁棒性。与AA相比，我们的方法可实现可比的性能，但在广泛的实验中仅占计算时间的3％。我们方法的可靠性在于，我们使用两个目标之间的边缘来评估对抗性示例的质量，这些目标可以精确地识别最对抗性的示例。我们方法的计算效率在于有效的顺序目标排名选择（星形）方法，以确保MM攻击的成本与类数无关。 MM攻击开辟了一种评估对抗性鲁棒性的新方法，并提供了一种可行且可靠的方式来生成高质量的对抗示例。

评估对抗性鲁棒性的量，以找到有输入样品被错误分类所需的最小扰动。底层优化的固有复杂性需要仔细调整基于梯度的攻击，初始化，并且可能为许多计算苛刻的迭代而被执行，即使专门用于给定的扰动模型也是如此。在这项工作中，我们通过提出使用不同$ \ ell_p $ -norm扰动模型（$ p = 0，1,2，\ idty $）的快速最小规范（FMN）攻击来克服这些限制（FMN）攻击选择，不需要对抗性起点，并在很少的轻量级步骤中收敛。它通过迭代地发现在$ \ ell_p $ -norm的最大信心被错误分类的样本进行了尺寸的尺寸$ \ epsilon $的限制，同时适应$ \ epsilon $，以最小化当前样本到决策边界的距离。广泛的实验表明，FMN在收敛速度和计算时间方面显着优于现有的攻击，同时报告可比或甚至更小的扰动尺寸。

The evaluation of robustness against adversarial manipulation of neural networks-based classifiers is mainly tested with empirical attacks as methods for the exact computation, even when available, do not scale to large networks. We propose in this paper a new white-box adversarial attack wrt the l p -norms for p ∈ {1, 2, ∞} aiming at finding the minimal perturbation necessary to change the class of a given input. It has an intuitive geometric meaning, yields quickly high quality results, minimizes the size of the perturbation (so that it returns the robust accuracy at every threshold with a single run). It performs better or similar to stateof-the-art attacks which are partially specialized to one l p -norm, and is robust to the phenomenon of gradient masking.

Adversarial machine learning has been both a major concern and a hot topic recently, especially with the ubiquitous use of deep neural networks in the current landscape. Adversarial attacks and defenses are usually likened to a cat-and-mouse game in which defenders and attackers evolve over the time. On one hand, the goal is to develop strong and robust deep networks that are resistant to malicious actors. On the other hand, in order to achieve that, we need to devise even stronger adversarial attacks to challenge these defense models. Most of existing attacks employs a single $\ell_p$ distance (commonly, $p\in\{1,2,\infty\}$) to define the concept of closeness and performs steepest gradient ascent w.r.t. this $p$-norm to update all pixels in an adversarial example in the same way. These $\ell_p$ attacks each has its own pros and cons; and there is no single attack that can successfully break through defense models that are robust against multiple $\ell_p$ norms simultaneously. Motivated by these observations, we come up with a natural approach: combining various $\ell_p$ gradient projections on a pixel level to achieve a joint adversarial perturbation. Specifically, we learn how to perturb each pixel to maximize the attack performance, while maintaining the overall visual imperceptibility of adversarial examples. Finally, through various experiments with standardized benchmarks, we show that our method outperforms most current strong attacks across state-of-the-art defense mechanisms, while retaining its ability to remain clean visually.

We identify obfuscated gradients, a kind of gradient masking, as a phenomenon that leads to a false sense of security in defenses against adversarial examples. While defenses that cause obfuscated gradients appear to defeat iterative optimizationbased attacks, we find defenses relying on this effect can be circumvented. We describe characteristic behaviors of defenses exhibiting the effect, and for each of the three types of obfuscated gradients we discover, we develop attack techniques to overcome it. In a case study, examining noncertified white-box-secure defenses at ICLR 2018, we find obfuscated gradients are a common occurrence, with 7 of 9 defenses relying on obfuscated gradients. Our new attacks successfully circumvent 6 completely, and 1 partially, in the original threat model each paper considers.