挖掘大型数据集以预测新数据时，统计机器学习背后原则的限制不仅对大数据迅速产生了严峻的挑战，而且对数据生成过程被偏置为低算法复杂性的传统假设构成了严峻的挑战。即使在有限数据集生成器中为简单呈现潜在的算法信息偏见时，我们也显示完全自动化，有或没有访问伪随机发生器，可计算学习算法，特别是当前机器学习方法中使用的统计性质的统计性质（包括深度学习），可以始终通过足够大的数据集来欺骗，自然地或人工。特别地，我们证明，对于每个有限的学习算法，存在足够大的数据集大小，上面不可预测的欺骗者的算法概率是算法的上限（最多只取决于学习算法的乘法常数）任何其他更大数据集的概率。换句话说，非常大的和复杂的数据集可能欺骗学习算法作为任何其他特定数据集的“简单泡沫”。这些欺骗数据集保证，任何预测都会从高算法复杂性全局最佳解决方案中发散，同时朝向低算法复杂度局部最佳解决方案。我们讨论框架和经验条件，以避免这种欺骗性现象，远离统计机器学习，以基于或激励的算法信息理论和可计算性理论的内在力量。

A major problem in machine learning is that of inductive bias: how to choose a learner's hypothesis space so that it is large enough to contain a solution to the problem being learnt, yet small enough to ensure reliable generalization from reasonably-sized training sets. Typically such bias is supplied by hand through the skill and insights of experts. In this paper a model for automatically learning bias is investigated. The central assumption of the model is that the learner is embedded within an environment of related learning tasks. Within such an environment the learner can sample from multiple tasks, and hence it can search for a hypothesis space that contains good solutions to many of the problems in the environment. Under certain restrictions on the set of all hypothesis spaces available to the learner, we show that a hypothesis space that performs well on a sufficiently large number of training tasks will also perform well when learning novel tasks in the same environment. Explicit bounds are also derived demonstrating that learning multiple tasks within an environment of related tasks can potentially give much better generalization than learning a single task.

我们建议出现的定量和客观概念。我们的建议使用算法信息理论作为一个客观框架的基础，其中某个字符串编码观测数据。这种字符串的Kolmogorov结构功能中有多个滴剂被视为出现的标志。我们的定义除了扩展了粗粒和边界条件的概念外，还提供了一些理论上的结果。最后，我们面对对动态系统和热力学的应用。

社区检测是网络科学中最重要的方法领域之一，在过去的几十年里引起了大量关注的方法之一。该区域处理网络的自动部门到基础构建块中，目的是提供其大规模结构的概要。尽管它的重要性和广泛的采用普及，所谓的最先进和实际在各种领域实际使用的方法之间存在明显的差距。在这里，我们试图通过根据是否具有“描述性”或“推论”目标来划分现有方法来解决这种差异。虽然描述性方法在基于社区结构的直观概念的网络中找到模式的模式，但是推理方法阐述了精确的生成模型，并尝试将其符合数据。通过这种方式，他们能够为网络形成机制提供见解，并以统计证据支持的方式与随机性的单独结构。我们审查如何使用推论目标采用描述性方法被陷入困境和误导性答案，因此应该一般而言。我们认为推理方法更通常与更清晰的科学问题一致，产生更强大的结果，并且应该是一般的首选。我们试图消除一些神话和半真半假在实践中使用社区检测时，努力改善这些方法的使用以及对结果的解释。

State-of-the-art results on image recognition tasks are achieved using over-parameterized learning algorithms that (nearly) perfectly fit the training set and are known to fit well even random labels. This tendency to memorize the labels of the training data is not explained by existing theoretical analyses. Memorization of the training data also presents significant privacy risks when the training data contains sensitive personal information and thus it is important to understand whether such memorization is necessary for accurate learning.We provide the first conceptual explanation and a theoretical model for this phenomenon. Specifically, we demonstrate that for natural data distributions memorization of labels is necessary for achieving closeto-optimal generalization error. Crucially, even labels of outliers and noisy labels need to be memorized. The model is motivated and supported by the results of several recent empirical works. In our model, data is sampled from a mixture of subpopulations and our results show that memorization is necessary whenever the distribution of subpopulation frequencies is long-tailed. Image and text data is known to be long-tailed and therefore our results establish a formal link between these empirical phenomena. Our results allow to quantify the cost of limiting memorization in learning and explain the disparate effects that privacy and model compression have on different subgroups.

算法稳定性是一种学习理论的概念，其表示对输入数据的改变的程度（例如，删除单个数据点）可能会影响回归算法的输出。了解算法的稳定性属性通常对许多下游应用程序有用 - 例如，已知稳定性导致所需的概括性属性和预测推理保证。然而，目前在实践中使用的许多现代算法太复杂，无法对其稳定性的理论分析，因此我们只能通过算法在各种数据集上的行为的实证探索来尝试建立这些属性。在这项工作中，我们为这种“黑匣子测试”奠定了一个正式的统计框架，而没有任何关于算法或数据分布的假设，并在任何黑匣子测试识别算法稳定性的能力方面建立基本界限。

所有著名的机器学习算法构成了受监督和半监督的学习工作，只有在一个共同的假设下：培训和测试数据遵循相同的分布。当分布变化时，大多数统计模型必须从新收集的数据中重建，对于某些应用程序，这些数据可能是昂贵或无法获得的。因此，有必要开发方法，以减少在相关领域中可用的数据并在相似领域中进一步使用这些数据，从而减少需求和努力获得新的标签样品。这引起了一个新的机器学习框架，称为转移学习：一种受人类在跨任务中推断知识以更有效学习的知识能力的学习环境。尽管有大量不同的转移学习方案，但本调查的主要目的是在特定的，可以说是最受欢迎的转移学习中最受欢迎的次级领域，概述最先进的理论结果，称为域适应。在此子场中，假定数据分布在整个培训和测试数据中发生变化，而学习任务保持不变。我们提供了与域适应性问题有关的现有结果的首次最新描述，该结果涵盖了基于不同统计学习框架的学习界限。

Methods of pattern recognition and machine learning are applied extensively in science, technology, and society. Hence, any advances in related theory may translate into large-scale impact. Here we explore how algorithmic information theory, especially algorithmic probability, may aid in a machine learning task. We study a multiclass supervised classification problem, namely learning the RNA molecule sequence-to-shape map, where the different possible shapes are taken to be the classes. The primary motivation for this work is a proof of concept example, where a concrete, well-motivated machine learning task can be aided by approximations to algorithmic probability. Our approach is based on directly estimating the class (i.e., shape) probabilities from shape complexities, and using the estimated probabilities as a prior in a Gaussian process learning problem. Naturally, with a large amount of training data, the prior has no significant influence on classification accuracy, but in the very small training data regime, we show that using the prior can substantially improve classification accuracy. To our knowledge, this work is one of the first to demonstrate how algorithmic probability can aid in a concrete, real-world, machine learning problem.

解决机器学习模型的公平关注是朝着实际采用现实世界自动化系统中的至关重要的一步。尽管已经开发了许多方法来从数据培训公平模型，但对这些方法对数据损坏的鲁棒性知之甚少。在这项工作中，我们考虑在最坏情况下的数据操作下进行公平意识学习。我们表明，在某些情况下，对手可能会迫使任何学习者返回过度偏见的分类器，无论样本量如何，有或没有降解的准确性，并且多余的偏见的强度会增加数据中数据不足的受保护组的学习问题，而数据中有代表性不足的组。我们还证明，我们的硬度结果紧密到不断的因素。为此，我们研究了两种自然学习算法，以优化准确性和公平性，并表明这些算法在损坏比和较大数据限制中受保护的群体频率方面享有订单最佳的保证。

We first prove that Littlestone classes, those which model theorists call stable, characterize learnability in a new statistical model: a learner in this new setting outputs the same hypothesis, up to measure zero, with probability one, after a uniformly bounded number of revisions. This fills a certain gap in the literature, and sets the stage for an approximation theorem characterizing Littlestone classes in terms of a range of learning models, by analogy to definability of types in model theory. We then give a complete analogue of Shelah's celebrated (and perhaps a priori untranslatable) Unstable Formula Theorem in the learning setting, with algorithmic arguments taking the place of the infinite.

Learned classifiers should often possess certain invariance properties meant to encourage fairness, robustness, or out-of-distribution generalization. However, multiple recent works empirically demonstrate that common invariance-inducing regularizers are ineffective in the over-parameterized regime, in which classifiers perfectly fit (i.e. interpolate) the training data. This suggests that the phenomenon of ``benign overfitting," in which models generalize well despite interpolating, might not favorably extend to settings in which robustness or fairness are desirable. In this work we provide a theoretical justification for these observations. We prove that -- even in the simplest of settings -- any interpolating learning rule (with arbitrarily small margin) will not satisfy these invariance properties. We then propose and analyze an algorithm that -- in the same setting -- successfully learns a non-interpolating classifier that is provably invariant. We validate our theoretical observations on simulated data and the Waterbirds dataset.

我们建立了量子算法设计与电路下限之间的第一一般连接。具体来说，让$ \ mathfrak {c} $是一类多项式大小概念，假设$ \ mathfrak {c} $可以在统一分布下的成员查询，错误$ 1/2 - \ gamma $通过时间$ t $量子算法。我们证明如果$ \ gamma ^ 2 \ cdot t \ ll 2 ^ n / n $，则$ \ mathsf {bqe} \ nsubseteq \ mathfrak {c} $，其中$ \ mathsf {bqe} = \ mathsf {bque} [2 ^ {o（n）}] $是$ \ mathsf {bqp} $的指数时间模拟。在$ \ gamma $和$ t $中，此结果是最佳的，因为它不难学习（经典）时间$ t = 2 ^ n $（没有错误） ，或在Quantum Time $ t = \ mathsf {poly}（n）$以傅立叶采样为单位为1/2美元（2 ^ { - n / 2}）$。换句话说，即使对这些通用学习算法的边际改善也会导致复杂性理论的主要后果。我们的证明在学习理论，伪随机性和计算复杂性的几个作品上构建，并且至关重要地，在非凡的经典学习算法与由Oliveira和Santhanam建立的电路下限之间的联系（CCC 2017）。扩展他们对量子学习算法的方法，结果产生了重大挑战。为此，我们展示了伪随机发电机如何以通用方式意味着学习到较低的连接，构建针对均匀量子计算的第一个条件伪随机发生器，并扩展了Impagliazzo，JaiSwal的本地列表解码算法。 ，Kabanets和Wigderson（Sicomp 2010）通过微妙的分析到量子电路。我们认为，这些贡献是独立的兴趣，可能会发现其他申请。

We present a new perspective on loss minimization and the recent notion of Omniprediction through the lens of Outcome Indistingusihability. For a collection of losses and hypothesis class, omniprediction requires that a predictor provide a loss-minimization guarantee simultaneously for every loss in the collection compared to the best (loss-specific) hypothesis in the class. We present a generic template to learn predictors satisfying a guarantee we call Loss Outcome Indistinguishability. For a set of statistical tests--based on a collection of losses and hypothesis class--a predictor is Loss OI if it is indistinguishable (according to the tests) from Nature's true probabilities over outcomes. By design, Loss OI implies omniprediction in a direct and intuitive manner. We simplify Loss OI further, decomposing it into a calibration condition plus multiaccuracy for a class of functions derived from the loss and hypothesis classes. By careful analysis of this class, we give efficient constructions of omnipredictors for interesting classes of loss functions, including non-convex losses. This decomposition highlights the utility of a new multi-group fairness notion that we call calibrated multiaccuracy, which lies in between multiaccuracy and multicalibration. We show that calibrated multiaccuracy implies Loss OI for the important set of convex losses arising from Generalized Linear Models, without requiring full multicalibration. For such losses, we show an equivalence between our computational notion of Loss OI and a geometric notion of indistinguishability, formulated as Pythagorean theorems in the associated Bregman divergence. We give an efficient algorithm for calibrated multiaccuracy with computational complexity comparable to that of multiaccuracy. In all, calibrated multiaccuracy offers an interesting tradeoff point between efficiency and generality in the omniprediction landscape.

这项教程调查概述了统计学习理论中最新的非征血性进步与控制和系统识别相关。尽管在所有控制领域都取得了重大进展，但在线性系统的识别和学习线性二次调节器时，该理论是最发达的，这是本手稿的重点。从理论的角度来看，这些进步的大部分劳动都在适应现代高维统计和学习理论的工具。虽然与控制对机器学习的工具感兴趣的理论家高度相关，但基础材料并不总是容易访问。为了解决这个问题，我们提供了相关材料的独立介绍，概述了基于最新结果的所有关键思想和技术机械。我们还提出了许多开放问题和未来的方向。

我们研究了Massart噪声存在下PAC学习半空间的复杂性。在这个问题中，我们得到了I.I.D.标记的示例$（\ mathbf {x}，y）\ in \ mathbb {r}^n \ times \ {\ pm 1 \} $，其中$ \ mathbf {x} $的分布是任意的，标签$ y y y y y y。 $是$ f（\ mathbf {x}）$的MassArt损坏，对于未知的半空间$ f：\ mathbb {r}^n \ to \ to \ {\ pm 1 \} $，带有翻转概率$ \ eta（\ eta）（\ eta） Mathbf {x}）\ leq \ eta <1/2 $。学习者的目的是计算一个小于0-1误差的假设。我们的主要结果是该学习问题的第一个计算硬度结果。具体而言，假设学习错误（LWE）问题（LWE）问题的（被认为是广泛的）超指定时间硬度，我们表明，即使最佳，也没有多项式时间MassArt Halfspace学习者可以更好地达到错误的错误，即使是最佳0-1错误很小，即$ \ mathrm {opt} = 2^{ - \ log^{c}（n）} $对于任何通用常数$ c \ in（0，1）$。先前的工作在统计查询模型中提供了定性上类似的硬度证据。我们的计算硬度结果基本上可以解决Massart Halfspaces的多项式PAC可学习性，这表明对该问题的已知有效学习算法几乎是最好的。

我们给出了第一个多项式算法来估计$ d $ -variate概率分布的平均值，从$ \ tilde {o}（d）$独立的样本受到纯粹的差异隐私的界限。此问题的现有算法无论是呈指数运行时间，需要$ \ OMEGA（D ^ {1.5}）$样本，或仅满足较弱的集中或近似差分隐私条件。特别地，所有先前的多项式算法都需要$ d ^ {1+ \ omega（1）} $ samples，以保证“加密”高概率，1-2 ^ { - d ^ {\ omega（1） $，虽然我们的算法保留$ \ tilde {o}（d）$ SAMPS复杂性即使在此严格设置中也是如此。我们的主要技术是使用强大的方块方法（SOS）来设计差异私有算法的新方法。算法的证据是在高维算法统计数据中的许多近期作品中的一个关键主题 - 显然需要指数运行时间，但可以通过低度方块证明可以捕获其分析可以自动变成多项式 - 时间算法具有相同的可证明担保。我们展示了私有算法的类似证据现象：工作型指数机制的实例显然需要指数时间，但可以用低度SOS样张分析的指数时间，可以自动转换为多项式差异私有算法。我们证明了捕获这种现象的元定理，我们希望在私人算法设计中广泛使用。我们的技术还在高维度之间绘制了差异私有和强大统计数据之间的新连接。特别是通过我们的校验算法镜头来看，几次研究的SOS证明在近期作品中的算法稳健统计中直接产生了我们差异私有平均估计算法的关键组成部分。

Virtually all machine learning tasks are characterized using some form of loss function, and "good performance" is typically stated in terms of a sufficiently small average loss, taken over the random draw of test data. While optimizing for performance on average is intuitive, convenient to analyze in theory, and easy to implement in practice, such a choice brings about trade-offs. In this work, we survey and introduce a wide variety of non-traditional criteria used to design and evaluate machine learning algorithms, place the classical paradigm within the proper historical context, and propose a view of learning problems which emphasizes the question of "what makes for a desirable loss distribution?" in place of tacit use of the expected loss.

可实现和不可知性的可读性的等价性是学习理论的基本现象。与PAC学习和回归等古典设置范围的变种，近期趋势，如对冲强劲和私人学习，我们仍然缺乏统一理论;等同性的传统证据往往是不同的，并且依赖于强大的模型特异性假设，如统一的收敛和样本压缩。在这项工作中，我们给出了第一个独立的框架，解释了可实现和不可知性的可读性的等价性：三行黑箱减少简化，统一，并在各种各样的环境中扩展了我们的理解。这包括没有已知的学报的模型，例如学习任意分布假设或一般损失，以及许多其他流行的设置，例如强大的学习，部分学习，公平学习和统计查询模型。更一般地，我们认为可实现和不可知的学习的等价性实际上是我们调用属性概括的更广泛现象的特殊情况：可以满足有限的学习算法（例如\噪声公差，隐私，稳定性）的任何理想性质假设类（可能在某些变化中）延伸到任何学习的假设类。

The Forster transform is a method of regularizing a dataset by placing it in {\em radial isotropic position} while maintaining some of its essential properties. Forster transforms have played a key role in a diverse range of settings spanning computer science and functional analysis. Prior work had given {\em weakly} polynomial time algorithms for computing Forster transforms, when they exist. Our main result is the first {\em strongly polynomial time} algorithm to compute an approximate Forster transform of a given dataset or certify that no such transformation exists. By leveraging our strongly polynomial Forster algorithm, we obtain the first strongly polynomial time algorithm for {\em distribution-free} PAC learning of halfspaces. This learning result is surprising because {\em proper} PAC learning of halfspaces is {\em equivalent} to linear programming. Our learning approach extends to give a strongly polynomial halfspace learner in the presence of random classification noise and, more generally, Massart noise.

近年来，在诸如denoing，压缩感应，介入和超分辨率等反问题中使用深度学习方法的使用取得了重大进展。尽管这种作品主要是由实践算法和实验驱动的，但它也引起了各种有趣的理论问题。在本文中，我们调查了这一作品中一些突出的理论发展，尤其是生成先验，未经训练的神经网络先验和展开算法。除了总结这些主题中的现有结果外，我们还强调了一些持续的挑战和开放问题。